cross

Click here to view graphically

The Greek that is translated as “cross” in English is often referred to a visualization of the cross’ shape. In Mandarin Chinese and Japanese, for instance, it is translated as 十字架 (Chinese: shízìjià; Japanese: jūjika) — “10-character-frame” because the character for “10” has the shape of a cross) or in Ancient Greek manuscripts with the staurogram (⳨) a ligature of the Greek letters tau (Τ) and rho (Ρ) that was used to abbreviate stauros (σταυρός), the Greek word for cross, and may visually have represented Jesus on the cross.

A staurogram spelling of the word σταυρον (as Ϲ⳨ΟΝ) in Luke 14:27 (Papyrus Bodmer XIV, 2nd century). Source: Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons

 

Elsewhere it refers to the function, e.g. a newly coined term, like one made up of two Sanskrit words meaning “killing-pole” (Marathi NT revision of 1964), “wood to-stretch-out-with” (Toraja-Sa’dan), or “nailing pole” (Zarma). A combination of the two seems to be used in Balinese, which employs a word for the crossbeams in a house, derived from a verb that can refer both to a beam that stretches from side to side under a roof, and to a person stretched out for torture (source for this and above: Reiling / Swellengrebel). Similarly, in Lamba it is translated “with umutaliko — ‘a pole with a cross-piece, on which maize was normally tied’ from the verb ‘talika’ which, strangely enough, is used of ‘holding down a man with arms and legs stretched out, someone gripping each limb.'” (Source C. M. Doke in The Bible Translator 1958, p. 57ff. ).

“In Mongolian, the term that is used is togonoltchi mott, which is found in the top of a tent. The people on the steppes live in round felt-yurts and the round opening on the top of the tent serves as a window. The crosswood in that opening is called togonoltchi mott. ‘Crucified’ is translated ‘nailed on the crosswood.’ This term is very simple, but deep and interesting too. Light comes to men through the Cross. What a privilege to be able to proclaim such a message.” (Source: A. W. Marthinson in The Bible Translator 1954, p. 74ff. )

In Mairasi it is translated as iwo nasin ae: “chest measurement wood.” “This term refers to the process of making a coffin when a person dies. The man making the coffin takes a piece of bamboo and measures the body from head to heel. He then breaks the stick off at the appropriate point. For the width he measures the shoulders and then ties the two sticks together in the shape of a cross. As he works, he continually measures to make sure the coffin is the correct size. At the gravesite, the coffin is lowered. Then the gravecloth, palm leaves, and finally the chest measurement stick are laid on top of the coffin before the dirt is piled on. This term is full of meaning, because it is in the shape of a cross, and each person will have one. The meaning is vividly associated with death.” (Source: Enggavoter, 2004)

In Lisu it is translated as ꓡꓯꓼ ꓐꓳ ꓔꓶꓸ DU — lä bo tɯ du: “a place to stretch the arms across” (source: Arrington 2020, p. 215), in Noongar as boorn-yambo: “crossed tree” (source: Warda-Kwabba Luke-Ang), in Yagaria as malipu yava or “cross-wood,” Alekano as “cross-wise tree,” in Kuman (PNG) as endi pirake or “vertical and horizontal beam” (source for this and two above: Renck 1990, p. 81), and in Tibetan as rgyangs shing (རྒྱངས་​ཤིང་​།), lit. “stretch + wood” (“translators have adopted the name of this traditional Tibetan instrument of torture to denote the object on which Jesus died”) (source: gSungrab website ).

The English translation of Ruden (2021) uses “stake.” She explains (p. xlv): “The cross was the perpendicular joining of two execution stakes, and the English word euphemistically emphasized the geometry: a cross could also be an abstract cross drawn on paper. The Greeks used their word for ‘stake,’ and this carries the imagery of what was done with it, as our ‘stake’ carries images of burning and impaling. ‘Hang on the stakes’ for ‘crucify’ is my habitual usage.”

See also crucify, cross (carry), and this devotion on YouVersion .

flesh (human nature)

Click here to view graphically

The Greek that is often translated as “flesh” in English (when referring to the lower human nature) can, according to Nida (1947, p. 153) “very rarely be literally translated into another language. ‘My meat’ or ‘my muscle’ does not make sense in most languages.” He then gives a catalog of almost 30 questions to determine a correct translation for that term.

Accordingly, the translations are very varied:

The Toraja-Sa’dan translation uses a variety of terms for the translation of the same Greek term (click or tap here to see the rest of this insight)

  • A form of kale tolinona or “corporeal” is for instance used in Romans 9:5 or Colossians 1:22 (and also in Genesis 6:3 and Exodus 30:32)
  • A form of mentolinona or “the human” is for instance used in Matthew 16:17 or John 1:14
  • Phrases that include pa’kalean or “bodiliness” (also: “human shape”) are for instance used in Romans 6:6 or 1 Peter 2:11 (as well as in Isa 52:14, Isa 53:2, and Lamentations 4:7

(Source: H. van der Veen in The Bible Translator 1952, p. 207ff. )

See also spirit / flesh, old self, and flesh (John 1:14).

circumcise, circumcision

Click here to view graphically

The Hebrew and Greek terms that are translated as “circumcise” or “circumcision” in English (originally meaning of English term: “to cut around”) are (back-) translated in various ways:

  • Chimborazo Highland Quichua: “cut the flesh”
  • San Miguel El Grande Mixtec, Navajo (Dinė): “cut around”
  • Javanese: “clip-away”
  • Uab Meto: “pinch and cut” (usually shortened to “cut”)
  • North Alaskan Inupiatun, Western Highland Purepecha: “put the mark”
  • Tetelcingo Nahuatl: “put the mark in the body showing that they belong to God” (or: “that they have a covenant with God”)
  • Indonesian: disunat — “undergo sunat” (sunat is derived from Arabic “sunnah (سنة)” — “(religious) way (of life)”)
  • Ekari: “cut the end of the member for which one fears shame” (in Gen. 17:10) (but typically: “the cutting custom”) (source for this and above: Reiling / Swellengrebel)
  • Hiri Motu: “cut the skin” (source: Deibler / Taylor 1977, p. 1079)
  • Garifuna: “cut off part of that which covers where one urinates”
  • Bribri: “cut the soft” (source for this and the one above: Ronald Ross)
  • Amele: deweg cagu qoc — “cut the body” (source: John Roberts)
  • Eastern Highland Otomi: “cut the flesh of the sons like Moses taught” (source: Ronald D. Olson in Notes on Translation January, 1968, p. 15ff.)
  • Newari: “put the sign in one’s body” (Source: Newari Back Translation)
  • Central Mazahua: “sign in his flesh”
  • Hopi: “being cut in a circle in his body” (source for this and above: Waterhouse / Parrott in Notes on Translation October 1967, p. 1ff.)
  • Mandarin Chinese: gēlǐ (割礼 / 割禮) or “rite of cutting” (Protestant); gēsǔn (割损 / 割損) or “cut + loss” (Catholic) (Source: Zetzsche)
  • Tibetan: mdun lpags gcod (མདུན་​ལྤགས་​གཅོད།), lit. “fore + skin + cut” (source: gSungrab website )
  • Kutu: “enter the cloth (=undergarments)” (source: Pioneer Bible Translators, project-specific translation notes in Paratext)

Learn more on Bible Odyssey: Circumcision .

complete verse (Galatians 6:12)

Following are a number of back-translations of Galatians 6:12:

  • Uma: “Those teachers that are bringing lying teaching are just following customs that are visible on the outside, for they want to request-praise from others. That’s why they say you must be circumcised according to the Law of Musa. Their purpose is so they will not be persecuted by the Yahudi people. They are afraid that if they believe in Kristus who died crucified and no longer follow that custom, that the Yahudi people will persecute them.” (Source: Uma Back Translation)
  • Yakan: “The people who are always forcing/persuading you commanding to be circumcised, that is what they aim for that the Yahudi praise them. They are afraid of their fellow Yahudi lest they be persecuted because of their trust in Isa Almasi who died on the post.” (Source: Yakan Back Translation)
  • Western Bukidnon Manobo: “And as for those people who want you to be circumcised, they wished to be praised by their companions. They’re afraid of their fellow Jews because they do not want that they be harmed because of their faith in the death of Christ.” (Source: Western Bukidnon Manobo Back Translation)
  • Kankanaey: “Those who are insisting that you get-circumcised, they are the ones who want to show their goodness in the estimation of people. The reason they insist on that is they don’t-want to be hardshipped. Because they know that if they teach that Cristo’s death on the cross is sufficient, their companions who are Jews will hardship them.” (Source: Kankanaey Back Translation)
  • Tagbanwa: “Those who are forcing you to be circumcised, their ulterior-motive is that people praise them because of their obeying the laws of their religion. But what really is in their minds which makes them force you like that is, they are afraid that they might be hardshipped by their fellow Jews if they maintain that it’s only the death of Cristo from-which-is-obtained salvation, not obedience to the laws of Moises.” (Source: Tagbanwa Back Translation)
  • Tenango Otomi: “These people who are urging you to have your bodies marked, they only want this so that people will look favorably upon them. Because they do not want to suffer what is suffered by those who say that our sins are taken care of by means of Christ dying on the cross.” (Source: Tenango Otomi Back Translation)

Christ, Messiah

Click here to view graphically

The Greek Christos (Χρηστός) is typically transliterated when it appears together with Iésous (Ἰησοῦς) (Jesus). In English the transliteration is the Anglicized “Christ,” whereas in many other languages it is based on the Greek or Latin as “Kristus,” “Cristo,” or similar.

When used as a descriptive term in the New Testament — as it’s typically done in the gospels (with the possible exceptions of for instance John 1:17 and 17:3) — Christos is seen as the Greek translation of the Hebrew mashiaḥ (המשיח‎) (“anointed”). Accordingly, a transliteration of mashiaḥ is used, either as “Messiah” or based on the Greek or Latin as a form of “Messias.”

This transliteration is also used in the two instances where the Greek term Μεσσίας (Messias) is used in John 1:41 and 4:25.

In some languages and some translations, the term “Messiah” is supplemented with an explanation. Such as in the German Gute Nachricht with “the Messiah, the promised savior” (Wir haben den Messias gefunden, den versprochenen Retter) or in Muna with “Messiah, the Saving King” (Mesias, Omputo Fosalamatino) (source: René van den Berg).

In predominantly Muslim areas or for Bible translations for a Muslim target group, Christos is usually transliterated from the Arabic al-Masih (ٱلْمَسِيحِ) — “Messiah.” In most cases, this practice corresponds with languages that also use a form of the Arabic Isa (عيسى) for Jesus (see Jesus). There are some exceptions, though, including modern translations in Arabic which use Yasua (يَسُوعَ) (coming from the Aramaic Yēšūa’) alongside a transliteration of al-Masih, Hausa which uses Yesu but Almahisu, and some Fula languages (Adamawa Fulfulde, Nigerian Fulfulde, and Central-Eastern Niger Fulfulde) which also use a form of Iésous (Yeesu) but Almasiihu (or Almasiifu) for Christos.

In Indonesian, while most Bible translations had already used Yesus Kristus rather than Isa al Masih, three public holidays used to be described using the term Isa Al Masih. From 2024 on, the government is using Yesus Kristus in those holiday names instead (see this article in Christianity Today ).

Other solutions that are used by a number of languages include these:

  • Dobel: “The important one that God had appointed to come” (source: Jock Hughes)
  • Noongar: Keny Mammarap or “The One Man” (source: Warda-Kwabba Luke-Ang)
  • Mairasi: “King of not dying for life all mashed out infinitely” (for “mashed out,” see salvation; source: Lloyd Peckham)
  • Western Bukidnon Manobo: “One chosen by God to rule mankind” (source: Western Bukidnon Manobo Back Translation)
  • Bacama: Ma Pwa a Ngɨltən: “The one God has chosen” (source: David Frank in this blog post )
  • Binumarien: Anutuna: originally a term that was used for a man that was blessed by elders for a task by the laying on of hands (source: Desmond Oatridges, Holzhausen 1991, p. 49f.)
  • Noongar: Keny Boolanga-Yira Waangki-Koorliny: “One God is Sending” (source: Warda-Kwabba Luke-Ang)
  • Uab Meto: Neno Anan: “Son of heaven” P. Middelkoop explains: “The idea of heavenly power bestowed on a Timorese king is rendered in the title Neno Anan. It is based on the historical fact that chiefs in general came from overseas and they who come thence are believed to have come down from heaven, from the land beyond the sea, that means the sphere of God and the ghosts of the dead. The symbolical act of anointing has been made subservient to the revelation of an eternal truth and when the term Neno Anan is used as a translation thereof, it also is made subservient to a new revelation of God in Jesus Christ. The very fact that Jesus came from heaven makes this translation hit the mark.” (Source: P. Middelkoop in The Bible Translator 1953, p. 183ff. )

In Finnish Sign Language both “Christ” and “Messiah” are translated with a sign signifying “king.” (Source: Tarja Sandholm)


“Christ / Messiah” in Finnish Sign Language (source )

Law (2013, p. 97) writes about how the Ancient Greek Septuagint‘s translation of the Hebrew mashiah was used by the New Testament writers as a bridge between the Old and New Testaments (click or tap here to read more):

“Another important word in the New Testament that comes from the Septuagint is christos, ‘Christ.’ Christ is not part of the name of the man from Nazareth, as if ‘the Christs’ were written above the door of his family home. Rather, ‘Christ’ is an explicitly messianic title used by the writers of the New Testament who have learned this word from the Septuagint’s translation of the Hebrew mashiach, ‘anointed,’ which itself is often rendered in English as ‘Messiah.’ To be sure, one detects a messianic intent on the part of the Septuagint translator in some places. Amos 4:13 may have been one of these. In the Hebrew Bible, God ‘reveals his thoughts to mortals,’ but the Septuagint has ‘announcing his anointed to humans.’ A fine distinction must be made, however, between theology that was intended by the Septuagint translators and that developed by later Christian writers. In Amos 4:13 it is merely possible we have a messianic reading, but it is unquestionably the case that the New Testament writers exploit the Septuagint’s use of christos, in Amos and elsewhere, to messianic ends.”

Learn more on Bible Odyssey: Christ .

formal 2nd person plural pronoun (Japanese)

Click or tap here to see the rest of this insight.

Like a number of other East Asian languages, Japanese uses a complex system of honorifics, i.e. a system where a number of different levels of politeness are expressed in language via words, word forms or grammatical constructs. These can range from addressing someone or referring to someone with contempt (very informal) to expressing the highest level of reference (as used in addressing or referring to God) or any number of levels in-between.

One way Japanese shows different degree of politeness is through the choice of a formal plural suffix to the second person pronoun (“you” and its various forms) as shown here in the widely-used Japanese Shinkaiyaku (新改訳) Bible of 2017. In these verses, anata-gata (あなたがた) is used, combining the second person pronoun anata and the plural suffix -gata to create a formal plural pronoun (“you” [plural] in English).

(Source: S. E. Doi, see also S. E. Doi in Journal of Translation, 18/2022, p. 37ff. )

Translation commentary on Galatians 6:12

Paul now engages in a final blistering attack on the false teachers, those who have been trying to force the Galatians to accept circumcision. First he describes them as those who want to show off and boast about external matters. The expression to show off and boast translates a verb which is used only here in the New Testament. It means “to make a good showing before men,” with the intent of becoming popular and acceptable. The word translated external matters is literally “flesh,” but here it refers to outward things, with special reference to the external rite of circumcision. In some languages one may simply say “boast about their bodies,” or “brag about how their bodies appear.” On the other hand external matters may be rendered in some instances as “about things that are seen,” “about those things which appear to men,” or “about things people think are important.”

Who are trying to force you to be circumcised may be expressed in some languages as direct discourse following a verb of command, for example, “are trying to command you, You must be circumcised.”

Secondly, Paul mentions that their motive in all of this is so that they may not be persecuted for the cross of Christ. The cross here stands for the whole event of the death of Christ together with its significance, particularly that of effecting a relationship with God based, not on circumcision and other external rites, but on faith alone. Anyone preaching the whole meaning of the cross would, of course, be persecuted by Jews. Paul accuses the false teachers of modifying the message in a way that would guarantee their remaining in good standing within the Jewish community. This purpose may be expressed in some languages as “they do that because they do not want people to persecute them,” or “they want to avoid having to suffer.”

The relation between the possible persecution and the cross of Christ is rather tenuous because of the negative involved. It may therefore be necessary to say “so that they would not be persecuted, since they would be persecuted if they preached about the death of Christ on the cross,” or “… preached about the importance of the death of Christ on the cross.” If one merely translates literally “persecuted for the cross of Christ,” it might appear that somehow the persecution would be for the sake of the literal cross, which, of course, would be meaningless.

Quoted with permission from Arichea, Daniel C. and Nida, Eugene A. A Handbook on Paul’s Letter to the Galatians. (UBS Handbook Series). New York: UBS, 1976. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .

SIL Translator’s Notes on Galatians 6:12

6:12–13

In these verses, Paul stated that the false teachers were only thinking about themselves and how they could avoid persecution for the cross of Christ. This is the exact opposite of what Paul said about himself in 5:11. The false teachers were preaching circumcision to avoid persecution. If Paul had preached circumcision, he could have avoided persecution as well, but since he refused to do so, he was persecuted. There was no godly zeal in what the false teachers were doing.

6:12a–b

Those who want to make a good impression outwardly are trying to compel you to be circumcised: In some languages, it will be more natural to change the order of the clauses in 6:12a–b. For example:

a Those who b are trying to force you to be circumcised a want to look good to others. (New Living Translation (2004))

6:12a

Those: The word that the Berean Standard Bible translates as Those is literally “as many as.” This word refers to the people who were deceiving the Galatians.

Some other ways to translate this word are:

Those people
-or-
And as for those people
-or-
Some people

who want to make a good impression outwardly: This clause refers to the false teachers. They put on a good outward appearance in order that other people would think well of them and accept them. Here outwardly refers generally to external matters and specifically to circumcision. The false teachers wanted other Jews to think well of them. They themselves were circumcised, and they tried to force other people to get circumcised. They focused on the physical and external rather than the spiritual.

Some other ways to translate this clause are:

want to look good to others (New Living Translation (2004))
-or-
who want to show off and boast about external matters (Good News Translation)
-or-
they want to show their goodness by the way their bodies appear to others

6:12b

are trying to compel you to be circumcised: This clause also refers to the false teachers. They were trying to force the Galatian believers to get circumcised. The word compel is the same word that Paul used in 2:3a and 2:14d.

Some other ways to translate this clause are:

who are trying to force you to be circumcised (Good News Translation)
-or-
Such persons are insisting that you be circumcised (SSA)

6:12c

They only do this to avoid persecution: In Greek this phrase is more literally “they only do this that they might not be persecuted.” In Greek this phrase contains the verb “persecuted,” which the Berean Standard Bible translates with the noun persecution. The verb “persecuted” means “causing people to suffer” because of their religious beliefs. The false teachers were afraid that the Jews would persecute them if they did not force believers to be circumcised. The false teachers were more concerned about avoiding persecution than about preaching the truth of the gospel.

The verb “persecuted” is passive. Some ways to translate this clause are:

• Use a passive verb. For example:

They don’t want to be persecuted (New Living Translation (2004))
-or-
They are afraid they will be attacked (New Century Version)

• Use an active verb. For example:

They do not want ?the Jews? to persecute them
-or-
And they don’t want to get into trouble (Contemporary English Version)
-or-
Their only aim is to avoid persecution (God’s Word)

This verb also occurs in 1:13b and 5:11b.

They only do this to: These words introduce the false teachers’ purpose in forcing the Galatians to be circumcised. They forced the Galatians to be circumcised so that they (the false teachers) would not be persecuted.

Some other ways to introduce this purpose are:

They only do this so that
-or-
Their only purpose is

In some languages, it may be natural to translate this as the reason. For example:

The only reason they do this is (New International Version)

6:12d

for the cross of Christ: This phrase refers to preaching only one thing: Christ died on a cross as the sacrifice for our sins. It refers to the complete gospel message of salvation by faith in Christ instead of by obeying the law. The false teachers were evidently preaching two things: people had to believe in the Messiah and also be circumcised.

Some other ways to translate this phrase are:

for preaching about the cross of Christ (Contemporary English Version)
-or-
for teaching that the cross of Christ alone can save (New Living Translation (2004))
-or-
because they only tell people about Christ’s death on the cross for salvation

The word the cross also occurs in 5:11c with the same meaning.

© 2016 by SIL International®
Made available under the terms of a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License (CC BY-SA) creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0.
All Scripture quotations in this publication, unless otherwise indicated, are from The Holy Bible, Berean Standard Bible.
BSB is produced in cooperation with Bible Hub, Discovery Bible, OpenBible.com, and the Berean Bible Translation Committee.