(The Catholic Christian Community Bible [first English edition 1997, other translations into Indonesian, Chinese, Cebuano, Chavacano, French, Ilonggo, Korean, Quechuan, Spanish, and Tagalog] “for the Christian Communities of the Third World” uses the following introduction.)
An Immigrant People
Moses’ mission finished at Mt. Nebo. As we see in the Book of Deuteronomy, Moses had been called by God to ‘bring up the people’, from the slavery of Egypt to the gates of the Promised land. The people are there facing this territory and it is now Joshua, the first Jesus — Joshua and Jesus are one and the same word in Hebrew — who is to lead the people into the land of promise.
Can we even speak of a people? Actually there are no more than a few clans guided by Moses across the desert, increased doubtless by new elements they have met at the holy place Qadesh-Barné. However few in number, these nomads carry such a religious experience that it will become, after meeting other tribes that did not leave Palestine, the spiritual heritage of them all.
Facing the Canaanites who inhabit the towns and cultivate the surrounding land, those nomads gradually become aware of their identity. He who revealed himself on Mt. Sinai and multiplied marvels in favor of these escapees from Egypt, Yahweh – God, has made a covenant with this nomadic people; he has entrusted to them at the same time his promises. From now on they are the people he has chosen; and he is their God. It is during this period of Joshua and the Judges that the people of Israel will be truly formed.
Although laden as they are with favors from Yahweh, these nomads cannot but admire the Canaanites among whom they live. This period of the second millennium before Jesus Christ has doubtless been the most prestigious period of Palestine history from a cultural point of view. Compared to the Canaanite towns with their ramparts, their temples and palaces with cedar panelling and inlaid ivory the nomads cut a poor figure. The contrast was the same on the religious level; the Canaanites in the towns multiplied celebrations, feasts and rituals under the eyes of tribes who hadn’t even a temple.
The books of Joshua and Judges as well as Samuel and Kings show us how easily the Israelites let themselves be influenced. Attracted by this brilliant civilization, they abandoned their customs and faith to adopt the cults of the country.
The Reality of a Conquest
A people seduced by Canaanite culture, leaders who resist and proclaim a call to fidelity — such is the permanent conflict presented by the Bible texts of this period. The Book of Joshua seems to present a systematic conquest of the country led by Joshua at the head of the clans; but actually it must have happened quite differently.
Town dwellers and nomads were certainly very different and the obligation of both to cohabit on common land did not prevent conflicts: at one time the Canaanites were stronger, at another the nomads. But gradually the tribes imposed their law on the former inhabitants of the land, and at the time of Saul, the one-time nomads, now citizens of the country had the power to rule. David and later Solomon were to confirm such a situation.
Active minorities are the ones that make history: when we speak of the Church and its impact on the world it is often a matter of a minority of the faithful. The prophets who, several centuries after Joshua, assemble the traditions and documents on the “conquest,” made no pretense of giving us an exact account and complete history. Let us not be deceived by the triumphal tone of these accounts where Joshua and all Israel won fantastic victories. The Book of Joshua narrates small events that make up great history.
Down below are the introductions in the Mandarin Chinese, Tagalog, Cebuano, and Spanish editions.
Pangalawang Batas ang ibig sabihin ng Deuteronomio. Ganito ang itinawag dito dahil sa pagkakalagay nito sa ating Biblia pagkatapos ng kabuuan ng mga batas na nasa mga aklat ng Levitico at Mga Bilang. Subalit unang isinulat ang Deuteronomio kaysa mga ito. Para pag isahin ang mga utos at mga kaugalian ang unang layunin nito at para ibigay sa Israel ang Batas na katatagpuan nito ng buhay.
At nang inedit ang Deuteronomio, sa ika-7 dantaon bago dumating si Kristo, higit sa limandaang taon na ang lumipas mula nang makipagtagpo si Moises sa Diyos. Nasakop na ang lupain ng Kanaan, naitatag na ang Kaharian nina David at Solomon at pagkatapos ay nahati.
Bumagsak na ang mas malaki at mas masaganang probinsya sa hilaga na tinatawag na Kaharian ng Israel. At gayon ding kapalaran ang nagbabanta nang mga taong iyon sa Kaharian ng Juda na probinsya sa timog.
Noon ipinagbigay-alam ang Batas na ito ni Yawe. Inilantad nito sa kanyang bayan ang dahilan ng kanilang mga pagkatalo at iniaalok ang isang pagkakataon para maligtas. Matagal na itong nalimutan sa Templo sa panahon ng pag-uusig ni Manases. Ngunit ang pagkatuklas dito sa taong 622 (2 H 22) ang siyang pinakaugat ng reporma ni Yosias.
Si Moises at ang Deuteronomio Tinanggap ng bayan ng Israel at ng kanilang mga pastol ang Deuteronomio bilang salita ng Diyos at aral ni Moises, pero ang mga pari at ang mga propeta naman ang sumulat nito. Binuod nila sa mga pahinang ito ang kanilang karanasan sa kabuuan ng kanilang kasaysayan.
Tulad sa iba pang mga libro sa Natapos sa Bundok Nebo ang misyon ni Moises. Tulad ng nakita natin sa Aklat ng Deuteronomio, tinawag ng Diyos si Moises para "hanguin ang bayan" mula sa pang aalipin ng Ehipto patungo sa pintuan ng Lupang Pangako. Naroon na ang bayan sa harapan ng lupaing ito at si Josue na ngayon, ang unang Jesus - pareho ang Josue at Jesus sa Hebreo -- ang siyang mamumuno sa bayan pagpasok sa lupa ng mga pangako.
Bayang Dayo Masasabi ba nating isang bayan sila? Sa katunayan, hindi sila hihigit pa sa ilang angkan na pinamumunuan ni Moises patawid sa disyerto, na tiyak na nadagdagan ng mga bagong grupo na nakatagpo nila sa Kades Barnea na isang banal na lugar. Bagamat kakaunti, dala naman ng mga lagalag na ito ang gayong kahalagang karanasang reli hiyoso na magiging pamanang espiritwal nilang lahat, pati na ng mga tribung hindi umalis sa Palestina na makakatagpo nila. Sa harap ng mga Kananeong nakatira sa mga bayan at nagsasaka sa nakapaligid na lupain, unti-unting nakita ng mga lagalag na ito kung ano sila. Sila ang mga takas sa Ehipto na (PAGE 321) ginawan ng Yawe-Diyos ng mga kahanga-hangang bagay. Sila ang bayang lagalag na pinagbunyagan niya ng kanyang sarili sa Bundok Sinai. Sa kanila siya gumawa ng tipan kasabay ng kanyang mga pangako. Mula sa panahong iyon, sila ang kanyang bayang hinirang; at siya ang kanilang Diyos. Sa panahong ito ni Josue at ng Mga Hukom talagang mabubuo ang bayang Israel.
Bagamat sagana sila sa mga biyaya ni Yawe, hindi maaaring hindi hangaan ng mga lagalag na ito ang mga Kananeong pinakikipamayanan nila. Hindi mapag-aalinlanganan na ang panahong ito ng ikalawang sanlibong taon bago dumating si Jesukristo, ang pinakatanyag na bahagi ng kasaysayan ng Palestina kung kultura ang pag-uusapan. Mukhang kawawa ang mga lagalag kung ihahambing sa mga Kananeong may mga bayan na may muog, mga templo at palasyo na may mga dingding na mamahaling kahoy at nadedekorasyonan ng garing. Gayundin ang kaibhan kung relihiyon ang pag-uusapan: maraming pagdiriwang, kapistahan at seremonya ang mga Kananeo sa mga bayan, na nakikita ng mga tribu na wala ni isang templo man lang.
Ipinakikita sa atin ng mga aklat ni Josue at ng Mga Hukom, pati na ni Samuel at ng Mga Hari, kung paano pinabayaan ng mga Israelita na maimpluwensyahan sila nang gayon na lamang. Naakit sila ng maringal na sibilisasyong ito kaya tinalikdan nila ang kanilang mga kaugalian at pananampalataya at ginaya ang mga seremonya ng pagsamba ng lupain. Biblia, inilagay sa bibig ni Moises ng mga sumulat ng Deuteronomio ang mga diskursong gusto nila mismong sabihin sa kanilang bayan. Gawa-gawa lamang ang pagsasalaysay nila na bago mamatay ay nakinikinita na ni Moises ang masaklap na kapalarang naghihintay sa kanyang bayan. Sinasabi nilang sa kanya galing ang mga babala at mga batas na pupuwede pang magligtas sa Israel. Sa totoo'y ginagamit ng Deuteronomio ang pangangaral ng mga propeta tungkol sa katarungan at pag-ibig: ito ang kauna-unahang pagsisikap na ginawa sa daigdig para bumuo ng isang lipunang may pagkakaisa't pagka kapatiran.
Translation: Cebuano
Gidala ni Moises ang mga Israelita sa kapatagan sa Moab latas sa suba Jordan, apan kinahanglan pa silang mosulod sa Yuta sa Saad sa ilang katigulangan.
Bisan sa lig-ong pagpangulo ni Moises, dili organisadong nasod ang Israel. Nagpabilin ni nga mga pundok pundok sa lainlaing tribu, kabanayan ug lungsod nga nahiusa gumikan sa kumong paninguha. Ang maayong pagbasa sa Biblia morag magpakita nga daghan ang mga Israelita nga wala mouban ni Moises sa kamingawan sa Cades. Gani, nag-una sila ni Josue sa Palestina subay sa habagatang bahin; miokupar na ang uban sa kabungtoran sa Moab (Num 32).
Misulod ug mipuyo didto nga malinawon ang mitabok sa Jordan sa panahon ni Josue. Dala ang mga tolda ug karnero, nanimuyo sila sa kabungtoran libot sa kinotahang mga syudad nga Kananeo. Wala sila mopuyo sa kapatagan, kay didto na man ang mga Kananeo nga mas lig-ong nagkahugpong. Hinuon, dunay pagbinayloay tali nila ug sa mga mag-uumang Kananeo. Ug kay mas milambo man ang Kananeong kultura, may daghan sa mga Israelita nga nasuyop ug misagop sa ilang tradisyon ingon man sa pagsimba sa mga diosdios sa mga Kananeo nga nakapamiligro nga mahanaw sila isip katawhan.
Miluwas sa Israel ang mga kursonado nga uban ni Josue nakahukom sa pagbuntog sa Canaan. Dili ta uyon sa paggamit nilag kusog ug kabangis. Apan nagsunod lang sila sa laraw sa Diyos, ginamit ang pamaaging naandan adtong panahona. Ang kasyudaran ug ang mga harihari sa Canaan (nga mga dakudako lang sa gagmayng lugar) wala magkahiusa busa, wala maglisod ang mga manggugubat ni Josue sa pagbuntog nila. Tungod ini, naisa ang nasodnong kaamgohan sa Israel. Gisugdan nila ang inanayng pag-angkon sa Yuta sa Saad. Tahas ni nga malipayog katumanan human sa 200 ka tuig ubos sa pagpangulo ni David.
Ang kasagarang nahitabo maoy nga nakamugna ang malimbasugong minoriya og kasaysayan. Kon maghisgot ta sa Simbahan ug sa tahas ini sa kalibotan, makahisgot ta labi na ining gagmayng pundok sa mga magtotoo. Kadaghanan nagapos ni sa naandang gawi ug wala makaamgo sa ilang misyon. Sa samang paagi, makahisgot tag kalihokan sa kalingkawasan, apan dyotay ra ang naglihok ug nagpuyo ining panglantawa ug paglaoma. Bisan pa ini, kining gagmay ug militanting pundok mao hinuoy makaduso sa masa sa katawhan sa unahan. Mao ni ang nahitabo sa Israel. Human sa 500 ka tuig gikan ni Josue, gihipos sa mga propeta ang kasulatan mahitungod sa ilang kadaogan, ug namugna kining basahona. Wala sila mag-asoy sa kompleto ug tukmang mga hitabo sa kasaysayan. Nagpahinumdom lang sa nakatabang sa pag-umol sa Israel isip nasod. Busa, dili ta magpadala sa giingon dinhi nga “ang tanang Israelita” nakig-away uban ni Josue o nga gibuntog ni Josue ang Palestina sa pagpatay sa tanang lumolupyo. Ang Josue nagsaysay og gagmayng mga butang nga nakamugna og dakong kasaysayan nga nasinati sa katawhan sa Israel.
Translation: Spanish
EL SIGLO DE JOSUÉ
La misión de Moisés se había acabado en el monte Nebo. Como lo vimos en el Deuteronomio, Moisés había sido llamado por Dios para guiar al pueblo y hacer que “subiera” desde la esclavitud de Egipto hasta las puertas de la Tierra Prometida. El pueblo está pues allí, frente a esa tierra que Dios le da en herencia y en ese momento es Josué, el primer Jesús (pues Josué y Jesús en hebreo tienen la misma grafía) quien va a introducir al pueblo en el la tierra prometida.
Un pueblo de emigrantes
Hablar de pueblo es mucho decir. En efecto, todavía no se trata más que de algunos clanes guiados por Moisés a través del desierto y que sin duda se han incrementado con nuevos elementos con los cuales se encontraron en el lugar santo de Cadés-Barne. Por pocos que hayan sido estos nómadas confiados ahora a Josué, llevan consigo una experiencia de una riqueza tal que se transformará, después de reunirse con otras tribus que no habían abandonado la Palestina, en la herencia espiritual de todos.
Frente a los cananeos que habitaban las ciudades y cultivaban las tierras de los alrededores, estos nómadas toman poco a poco conciencia de su originalidad y de su identidad. El que se reveló a Moisés en el Sinaí y que multiplicó las maravillas a favor de los fugitivos de Egipto, Yavé-Dios, hizo una alianza con este pueblo de nómadas, con estas tribus de beduinos. Les dio su ley al mismo tiempo que su promesa. En adelante serán el pueblo que él se eligió y él será su Dios. Es durante este período de Josué y de los Jueces cuando se constituirá realmente el pueblo de Israel.
Sin embargo, por muy colmados que se sientan por Yavé, estos nómadas no pueden dejar de sentir admiración por los cananeos en medio de los cuales viven. Los historiadores nos dicen que este período del segundo milenio antes de Cristo es el período más prestigioso de la historia de Palestina en el plano cultural. Frente a las ciudades cananeas con sus fortificaciones, sus templos y sus palacios con artesonado de cedro, y decorados con incrustaciones de marfil, el nivel de vida de los nómadas parecía muy pobre. El mismo contraste se daba en el plano religioso: los cananeos de las ciudades multiplicaban sus celebraciones, fiestas y ritos a la vista de los beduinos que no tenían ni siquiera templo.
La tentación es grande, y tanto los libros de Josué y de los Jueces como los de Samuel y de los Reyes no cesarán de mostrarnos con cuánta facilidad el pueblo de Israel se dejaba arrastrar. Atraído por esa civilización brillante, abandona al mismo tiempo sus costumbres propias y su fe para adoptar los cultos de los habitantes del país. Durante todo el período de la realeza los profetas no dejarán de recordar al pueblo las exigencias de la alianza y de la fidelidad a Yavé.
La verdad sobre la conquista
Un pueblo seducido por la cultura cananea, hombres de Dios que resisten proclamándole el llamado a la fidelidad, tal es el conflicto permanente que nos presentan los textos de la Biblia con respecto a este período. El libro de Josué parece que nos presentara una conquista sistemática del país llevada a cabo por Josué a la cabeza de las tribus; sin embargo las cosas debieron suceder de manera muy distinta.
La gente de las ciudades y los nómadas eran muy diferentes, y la obligación que tenían unos y otros de cohabitar en un mismo territorio, no impidió que hubiera conflictos, unas veces eran los cananeos los que ganaban, otra, los nómadas. Con el tiempo, las tribus fueron imponiendo su ley a los antiguos habitantes del país, y en la época de Saúl, los nómadas de otrora, convertido en citadinos a medida que pasaban los años, se habían apoderado del poder en el país. David primero, y después Salomón deberían confirmar esta situación.
Las minorías activas son las que hacen la historia. Cuando hablamos de la Iglesia y de su impacto en el mundo, no se trata a veces más que de una minoría de creyentes. Los grupos de profetas que, varios siglos después de Josué, recopilaron las tradiciones y los documentos sobre la conquista, no pretendieron entregarnos una historia exacta y completa de aquélla. No nos dejemos engañar por el aspecto triunfador de estos relatos en que todo Israel obtiene junto a Josué victorias asombrosas: el libro de Josué narra pequeñas cosas que constituyeron una gran historia.
EL LIBRO DE JOSUÉ Y SUS AUTORES
Cuando se redactó el presente libro, la historia de Josué se perdía en un pasado del que ya se habían olvidado muchos detalles, sin embargo, bastaban algunas imágenes y recuerdos para ilustrar la vocación del pueblo de Dios y el sentido de sus aventuras.
Josué inaugura la serie de libros que la Biblia hebraica llama Profetas Anteriores, entendiendo por este título que estos libros históricos nos hablan de una historia que comenzó bastante antes que los profetas, pero que fueron pensados y compuestos en las cofradías de profetas. Toda la serie que lleva desde Josué a los libros de los Reyes forma en realidad una unidad con la reflexión del Deuteronomio. Hoy día se habla habitualmente de historia Deuteronomista para designar este conjunto.
El libro de Josué se compuso en gran parte en los últimos tiempos del reino de Judá. Entonces la idea de que la tierra de Palestina es el gran don de Dios a su pueblo y la señal de su alianza, invitaba a constatar en el pasado una correspondencia entre las conquistas y la fidelidad a la alianza, entre las infidelidades y el fracaso.
El autor ha conocido el tiempo de Josué a través de múltiples fuentes: tradiciones orales muy maltratadas, sin duda, a causa de los 500 años transcurridos; documentos conservados tal vez en los santuarios antiguos de Israel, como el de Guilgal, y documentos sobre el catastro de las tribus que databan de la época real.
El libro debe de haber sido retocado en tiempos del exilio de Babilonia. Fue entonces cuando intervinieron los sacerdotes y en muchos de sus pasajes impusieron otra interpretación, acentuando al mismo tiempo el carácter litúrgico de los acontecimientos importantes.
(The Catholic Christian Community Bible [first English edition 1997, other translations into Indonesian, Chinese, Cebuano, Chavacano, French, Ilonggo, Korean, Quechuan, Spanish, and Tagalog] “for the Christian Communities of the Third World” uses the following introduction.)
Nahum prophesied when the Assyrian power was collapsing, at the death of Ashurbanipal, the last king in 626. In 612 the Medes and Babylonian allies attacked and destroyed Nineveh, the capital of the Assyrians. Even before that, however, the Assyrians were losing their control over the people whom they had enslaved and who thoroughly hated them. The Jews were among them. Nahum’s poems show the heart of a patriot who believes that the Lord governs the history of the nations.
Down below are the introductions in the Mandarin Chinese, Tagalog, Cebuano, and Spanish editions.
Nagpropesiya si Nahum habang pabagsak na ang kapangyarihang Asirio, sa pagkamatay ni Asurbanipal na pinakahuling hari nila sa taong 626. Sa taong 612 naman, nilusob ng mag-kakamping mga Babilonio at mga Medo ang Ninive na kapitolyo ng mga Asirio, at winasak iyon. Pero bago pa man ito nangyari, unti-unti nang nawawala ang paghahari ng mga Asirio sa mga bayang kanilang inalipin at may matinding galit sa kanila. Kasama sa mga bayang ito ang mga Judio. Masasalamin sa mga tula ni Nahum ang puso ng isang makabayan na naniniwalang ang Panginoon ang namamahala sa kasaysayan ng mga bayan.
Translation: Cebuano
Si Nahum nanagna diha nga ang gahom sa Asiria nagkahugno, sa kamatayon ni Ashurbanipal, ang kataposang hari sa tuig 626. Sa tuig 612, ang alyansa sa taga Media ug taga Babilonia misulong ug miguba sa Ninive, ang kapital sa Asiria. Hinuon, bisan sa wala pa ni moabot, ang mga Asirio nawad-an na sa gahom pagkontrolar sa mga tawo nga ilang giulipon, ug nasilag nila pag-ayo. Ang mga Judio usa nila. Ang mga balak ni Nahum nagpakita sa kasingkasing sa bayani nga nagtoo nga ang Diyos ang nagmando sa kasaysayan sa katawhan.
Translation: Spanish
Nahúm profetizó cuando el poderío asirio se venía abajo, a la muerte de Asurbanipal, su último rey, el año 626. En el año 612 los aliados medos y babilonios atacaron y destruyeron a Nínive, capital de los asirios. Pero ya antes de esa fecha los asirios habían ido perdiendo su dominio sobre los pueblos que esclavizaban y que les tenían odio profundo. Entre esos pueblos estaban los judíos. Los poemas de Nahúm reflejan el corazón de un patriota que cree que el Señor gobierna la historia de los pueblos.
(The Catholic Christian Community Bible [first English edition 1997, other translations into Indonesian, Chinese, Cebuano, Chavacano, French, Ilonggo, Korean, Quechuan, Spanish, and Tagalog] “for the Christian Communities of the Third World” uses the following introduction.)
The Book of Judith is an edifying narrative (see introduction of Esther). It was inspired by records and legends of the national resistance at the time of the Maccabees.
There was a promise made by God to Abraham (Genesis 12:2-3); it is insisted upon more clearly in Leviticus 26 and Deuteronomy 28. According to this promise, God would defend his people when they were faithful to the Law, but would deliver them to their enemies whenever they did not follow the Law.
The Book of Judith (Judith means the Jewess) attempts to demonstrate that God keeps his promise.
God’s people returned from exile a short time before. They rebuilt the capital, Jerusalem, restored the Temple and the worship of God, and were resettling in the entire country. In short, they were living a period of faithfulness to God and, according to his promise, God would protect them.
Down below are the introductions in the Mandarin Chinese, Tagalog, Cebuano, and Spanish editions.
Ilang salaysay na may aral ang Aklat ni Judit (tingnan ang introduksyon sa Ester). Binigyang-buhay ito ng mga talaan at alamat ng pambansang pakikidigma sa panahon ng mga Macabeo.
May pangakong binitiwan ang Diyos kay Abraham (Genesis 12:2-3) at mas malinaw na iginiit ito sa Levitico 26 at Deuteronomio 28. Ayon sa pangakong ito, ipagtatanggol ng Diyos ang kanyang bayan kapag naging tapat ito sa Batas; subalit ibibigay niya sila sa mga kaaway kapag lumayo sila sa pagtupad sa Batas.
Sinisikap ipakita ng aklat ni Judit (ang babaeng Judio ang ibig sabihin ng Judit) sa isang salaysay na tinutupad ng Diyos ang kanyang pangako.
Kauuwi pa lamang ng bayan ng Diyos mula sa pagkatapon. Itinayo nilang muli ang Jerusalem na siyang kapitolyo, kinumpuni nila ang Templo at ibinalik ang pagsamba sa Diyos, at pinamayanan ang buong lupain. Sa madaling salita, nagkaroon sila ng panahon ng katapatan sa Diyos. At, ayon sa pangako, ipagtatanggol sila ng Diyos.
Translation: Cebuano
Ang Judit mubong nobela (basaha ang pasiuna sa Ester).
Dunay saad nga gihimo ang Diyos kang Abraham (Gen 12:2-3); klaro pa ning gisubli sa Levitico 26 ug sa Deuteronomio 28. Sumala sa maong saad, ang Diyos manalipod sa iyang katawhan kon magtuman sila sa Balaod, apan itugyan niya sila sa mga kaaway, kon dili sila mosunod sa Balaod.
Ang ni Judit (Judit nagpasabot og babaye nga taga Juda), misulay pagpakita nga gituman sa Diyos ang iyang saad.
Dili pa lang dugay nga nabalik ang katawhan sa Diyos gikan sa ilang pagkabihag. Gibangon nila pag-usab ang Jerusalem, lakip ang Templo; gibalik nila ang pagsimba sa Diyos ug gipuy-an ang tibuok nasod. Sa laktod, nagpuyo sila nga maunongon sa Diyos sumala sa iyang saad, ug gipanalipdan sila.
Translation: Spanish
Judit y la historia
No emplearemos mucho tiempo en demostrar que toda esta historia es una ficción. Desde el primer versículo nos habla de Nabucodonosor, rey de los asirios, mientras que era rey de Babilonia y aplastó a Asiria. Los discursos de su general Holofernes son caricaturas fuera de toda realidad, y a cada instante se encuentran anacronismos.
Pero, después de haber dicho esto, está claro que el autor quiere recordarnos una verdad permanente de la historia: Dios está en contra de los poderes opresores y siempre lleva a cabo su propio plan. Este libro contiene numerosas alusiones al Exodo y los capítulos 15-16 de Judit retoman las ideas y las palabras de Ex 15. A lo largo de todo el libro, y en el mismo orden, se encuentran los diversos episodios y los diálogos del combate de David y Goliat.
Lo que estimuló al autor y que explica el carácter propio de esta nueva presentación de las victorias de Dios, parece que fue la resistencia heroica contra los invasores sirios en tiempos de los Macabeos. La victoria de Judit expresa las esperanzas del pueblo judío después de esos años tan duros que le permitieron recuperar, luego de más de tres siglos, su independencia. Ahora, no sólo los judíos han recobrado la independencia sino que también han conquistado una gran parte de Palestina: todos piensan que se acerca la hora en que Dios reunirá a su pueblo y reinará sobre las naciones.
Hay que agregar que Judit es uno de los escasos libros de la Biblia en que el héroe es una mujer. Esto lo perjudicó. Si fue excluido de la Biblia hebrea, fue en parte porque sólo se tenía su versión griega, pero tal vez molestaba también el personaje de Judit que les quitaba su monopolio a los sacerdotes y los doctores.
David y Goliat: el super-armado y el débil; el que dispone de la técnica, las armas sofisticadas y la banca internacional; el que puede difundir su verdad e imponerla a través del mundo... Y el débil, siempre despojado, acallado, tenido como culpable, a menudo segregado en las reservas y los campos de refugiados. Su fe y su perseverancia serán su fuerza (Sal 37; Lc 18,1). Habrá una hora de Dios, pero tal vez no será la venganza y las masacres con los que soñaba el autor de Judit. Pues las riendas de la historia están en las manos del que fue crucificado y resucitó, y todos serán salvados a pesar de que no saben cuál puede ser la salvación a la que Dios nos lleva.
(The Catholic Christian Community Bible [first English edition 1997, other translations into Indonesian, Chinese, Cebuano, Chavacano, French, Ilonggo, Korean, Quechuan, Spanish, and Tagalog] “for the Christian Communities of the Third World” uses the following introduction.)
Some persons praise the first Christians as if they had been models of all virtue. In fact, there were no more miracles then than now. Here as elsewhere, Paul addresses men and women living in a world as real as our own. Corinth had its own particular character among the Mediterranean cities. Situated on a tongue of land separating two gulfs, it had the best part of its privileged site. The two ports of the east and west had been joined by a kind of paved way on which boats were pulled by means of enormous wagons drawn by bullocks. This spared sailors having to detour to Greece by the south: a very long voyage at the time and very dangerous. Obviously it had to be paid for; this financially benefited the town; it also needed labor which meant many slaves. The city had a sanctuary dedicated to the goddess Aphrodite, the goddess of “love” for the Greeks, around which had developed (with the help of money) a prostitution that had nothing sacred about it other than its name. The prostitutes were counted in the thousands. Quite near Corinth, there was a sportive celebration—rather similar to the Olympic Games of our day—every two years. This drew large crowds of people. We notice in these two letters of Paul very clear allusions to these different aspects of Corinthian history: slavery, prostitution, stadium sports.
In Corinth, there existed a dynamic, though not well ordered Church, composed of Jews and Greeks converted by Paul. Many of them were in danger of returning to the vices of their former lives, once the enthusiasm of their first years as Christians had worn off. Those responsible in the Church apparently were not capable of dealing with many problems: internal divisions and doubts about faith. They therefore called upon Paul, who wrote the present letter, because he could not interrupt his work in Ephesus.
We notice the authority with which Paul, from afar, leads the Church in the name of Christ; also his manner of teaching: before answering any question, he reasserts the foundations of the faith.
The Corinthians, in the midst of a pagan world, were concerned about matters that are again relevant in our times:
– about celibacy and marriage,
– about living together with those who do not share the Christian faith,
– about conducting the assemblies, for both the celebration of the eucharist and the use of “spiritual gifts,”
– about the resurrection of the dead.
Down below are the introductions in the Mandarin Chinese, Tagalog, Cebuano, and Spanish editions.
Hangang-hanga ang ilan sa atin sa mga unang Kristiyano na para bang sila na ang pinakahuwaran ng lahat ng kabutihan. Pero ang totoo’y pareho lamang sila noon sa atin ngayon.
Sa pagkakataong ito, tulad sa iba pang lugar, mga taong tulad natin ang kausap ni Pablo. Naiiba ang Corinto sa iba pang mga siyudad sa Mediterraneo sapagkat nasa pagitan ito ng dalawang golpo kaya naman napakaganda ng lokasyon nito. May dalawang daungan ito, isa sa silangan at isa sa kanluran, na pinagdugtong ng malasementadong daan kung saan “itinatawid” ang mga barko na sakay sa malalaking karitong hila ng mga baka. Kaya hindi na maglalayag pa patimog sa Gresya na mahaba at mapanganib na paglalakbay. May bayad siyempre ito. Malaki ang naitulong nito sa pananalapi ng bayan at nangailangan din ito ng maraming trabahador, ibig sabihi’y mga alipin. Sa lunsod ay may templong nakatalaga para sa diyosang si Aphrodite na siyang diyosa ng pag-ibig para sa mga Griyego. At sa templong iyon, at dahil na rin sa pera, lumaganap ang “sagradong” prostitusyon, na walang anumang sagrado liban sa pangalan nito. Libu-libo ang mga prostituta.
At malapit sa Corinto, may palaro namang idinaraos tuwing ikalawang taon na halos kapareho ng ating Olympic Games. Marami ang pumupunta roon. Mapapansin natin sa dalawang sulat na ito ni Pablo ang mga deretsahang pagtukoy niya sa iba’t ibang aspektong ito sa kasaysayan ng Corinto: ang pagkakaroon ng mga alipin, prostitusyon at palaro sa istadyum.
Bunga ng pangangaral ni Pablo, nabuo ang Iglesya sa Corinto na binubuo ng mga Judio at mga Griyego. Masigla ang pamayanang ito ngunit medyo magulo. Marami sa kanila ang nanganganib bumalik sa dati nilang mga bisyo pagkalipas ng sigasig ng mga unang taon sa pagkakristiyano. At mukhang hindi kayang harapin ng mga responsable sa Iglesya ang gayon karaming problema: ang pagkakahati-hati at pagdududa sa pananampalataya. Kaya dumulog sila kay Pablo na sumulat ng liham na ito sapagkat hindi niya maiiwan ang kanyang gawain sa Efeso.
Mapapansin natin ang kapangyarihan ni Pablo sa pamumuno niya sa Iglesya sa ngalan ni Kristo, kahit na sa malayo. Gayon din naman sa kanyang pagtuturo: bago sagutin ang anumang tanong, inilalahad muna niyang muli ang mga saligan ng pananampalataya.
Sa gitna ng paganong daigdig, mga bagay na may kinalaman din sa ating panahon ang pinoproblema ng mga taga-Corinto noon:
– ang tungkol sa di-pag-aasawa at pag-aasawa,
– ang pamumuhay sa piling ng mga di-Kristiyano,
– ang mga pagtitipon para sa pagdiriwang ng eukaristiya at paggamit ng mga “kaloob na espirituwal,”
– ang pagkabuhay ng mga patay.
Translation: Cebuano
Ang unang kristyanos gidayeg sa uban isip modelo sa tanang balaanong hiyas. Apan sa pagkatinuod ang mga milagro kaniadto dili mas daghan kay sa karon.
Syudad nga mauswagon ang Corinto, apan puno sa kahugawan. Ang mga Judio ug Griyego nga nakabig ni Pablo nakapabarog didto og simbahang aktibo, apan dili maayong pagkadumala. Daghan kaayo ang may hilig gihapon pagbalik sa daang mga bisyo labi na dihang miawop ang kadasig sa unang kristyanos. Ang mga responsabli pagdumala sa Simbahan dili maantigong moatubang sa daghang problema sama sa pagkabahinbahin ug sa mga pagduhaduha sa pagtoo. Mao nga nagpakitabang sila ni Pablo. Busa, nagsulat siya; dili niya kabiyaan ang iyang buluhaton sa Efeso.
Makita dinhi ang awtoridad ni Pablo paggiya sa Simbahan sa ngalan ni Jesus bisag tua siya sa layo. Duna siyay pamaagi pagtudlo: sa dili pa tubagon ang mga pangutana, ipadayag una ang sukaranan sa pagtoo.
Taliwala sa paganong kalibotan, ang taga Corinto nag-atubang og mga problema sama sa sagad tang ikahinagbo sa atong panahon:
– ang mahitungod sa pagminyo o sa pagpabiling dalaga o ulitawo;
– ang mahitungod sa pagpuyo uban sa lahig pagtoo;
– ang mahitungod sa pagtigom alang sa pagsaulog sa Eyukaristya ug paggamit sa mga espirituhanong gasa; ug ang mahitungod sa pagkabanhaw sa minatay.
Translation: Spanish
Algunos hablan de los primeros cristianos como si hubieran sido modelos de todas las virtudes. La primera carta a los Corintios nos hará ver que los creyentes de los primeros tiempos tenían sus debilidades como nosotros y que la fe no había eliminado el peso de las realidades humanas.
Corinto tenía su propia fisonomía entre las ciudades del Mediterráneo. Situada en una franja de tierra que separa dos golfos, se había aprovechado de su situación privilegiada. Los dos puntos del este y del oeste se habían unido por una especie de camino enlosado por el cual se tiraba de los navíos por medio de enormes carros arrastrados por bueyes. Así los marinos se ahorraban de dar la vuelta a Grecia por el sur. Pero había que pagar, lo que significaba una importante entrada para la ciudad; el transporte exigía además abundante mano de obra, lo que para la época significaba muchos esclavos.
La ciudad poseía desde tiempo muy antiguo un santuario consagrado a Afrodita, la «diosa del amor» según los griegos, en cuyo derredor se desarrollaba —y para eso siempre había plata— una prostitución que de sagrada no tenía más que el nombre. En tiempos de Pablo las prostitutas se contaban por millares.
Muy cerca de Corinto se celebraban cada dos años competencias deportivas, parecidas a los juegos olímpicos actuales, que también atraían gran cantidad de gente.
Se advertirán en estas dos cartas de Pablo alusiones muy claras a estos diferentes aspectos de Corinto: el dinero, la esclavitud, la prostitución y los juegos del estadio.
En Corinto judíos y paganos convertidos por Pablo formaban una Iglesia dinámica, aunque poco ordenada. Después del entusiasmo de los primeros años, muchos se habían dejado llevar por los vicios y por las costumbres paganas, y los responsables de la comunidad se sentían impotentes para hacer frente tanto a esas dificultades y también a las divisiones internas o dudas respecto a la fe. Hicieron pues un llamado a Pablo. Retenido en Efeso por su trabajo apostólico, les envió esta carta como respuesta.
Llama la atención tanto la autoridad con que el apóstol se dirige a la Iglesia en nombre de Cristo, como su manera de enseñar, pues antes de responder directamente a una cuestión, comienza siempre por reafirmar las bases de la fe. Las dudas de los Corintios, sumidos en un mundo pagano, se referían a temas que son aún hoy de actualidad o que se discuten entre nosotros:
— el celibato y el matrimonio;
— los problemas de coexistencia con los no creyentes;
— el orden de las reuniones de la Iglesia, tanto para la celebración de la Eucaristía como para el ejercicio de los «dones espirituales»;
— la resurrección de los muertos.
(The Catholic Christian Community Bible [first English edition 1997, other translations into Indonesian, Chinese, Cebuano, Chavacano, French, Ilonggo, Korean, Quechuan, Spanish, and Tagalog] “for the Christian Communities of the Third World” uses the following introduction.)
Following the fall of Jerusalem and the horrendous things that took place there, believers try to understand. They are not complaining; they see the ruins as deserved punishment for their many excesses and constant rejection of God’s warnings. Yet, they know that the Lord loves his people: they believe this, feel it and proclaim it.
When the exiles returned to Jerusalem, they may have gathered to pray together on the ruins of what had been the Temple, and taken turns with these laments. Later they continued yearly to pray them on the date of the catastrophe, and much later the Church adopted the custom of using them in the days she remembers the death of Jesus.
In the Lord’s Passion, the believer sees the sum total of the suffering and anxiety of humankind. These poems help us to look with the same compassion on the suffering of Christ and the suffering of the destitute. They will help us to unite the vision of universal pain with the sense of human sinfulness and responsibility.
A Jewish tradition attributes these poems to Jeremiah. They do seem to manifest a spirit very similar to his.
Down below are the introductions in the Mandarin Chinese, Tagalog, Cebuano, and Spanish editions.
Sinisikap unawain ng mga nananampalataya ang pagkawasak ng Jerusalem at ang kasunod nitong mga kakila-kilabot na mga pangyayari. Hindi sila nagrereklamo. Itinuturing nilang karapat-dapat na kaparusahan ito para sa marami nilang kaguluhan at sa patuloy na pagtanggi sa mga babala ng Diyos. Gayon pa man, alam nilang mahal ni Yawe ang kanyang bayan. Pinaniniwalaan nila ito, nararamdaman, at ipinahahayag.
Nang bumalik sa Jerusalem ang mga itinapon, malamang na nagtipon sila para manalangin nang sama-sama sa guho ng dating Templo at halinhinan nilang binigkas ang mga panaghoy na ito. Pagkatapos, ipinagpatuloy nila ang pagdarasal nito taun-taon sa petsa ng malaking kapahamakang iyon. At nang lumaon, nakaugalian na ng Simbahang gamitin ang mga Panaghoy para gunitain ang pagkamatay ni Jesus.
Sa Pasyon ng Panginoon, nakikita ng nananampalataya ang pagkakatipon ng mga pagdurusa at dalamhati ng sangkatauhan. Tinutulungan tayo ng mga tulang ito na pagbuklurin sa iisang pagdamay ang mga pagdurusa ni Kristo at ang matinding paghihirap ng napakaraming nagdurusa. Tutulungan din tayo nitong pag-isahin ang pananaw sa paghihirap ng santinakpan at ang kahulugan ng kasalanan at responsibilidad ng tao.
Ipinapalagay ng isang tradisyon ng mga Judio na galing kay Jeremias ang mga tulang ito. At nalalahad nga sa mga ito ang isang diwa na katulad ng sa kanya.
Translation: Cebuano
Human sa pagkapukan sa Jerusalem ug sa makahadlok nga panghitabo, ang mga magtotoo naningkamot sa pagsabot ining tanan. Wala sila magreklamo; gitan-aw nila ang mga kadaot isip silot sa daghan nilang kalapasan ug sa makanunayon nilang pagsalikway sa mga pahimangno sa Ginoo. Gani, nasayod sila nga ang Diyos nahigugma sa iyang katawhan: mitoo sila, mibati, ug misangyaw ini.
Sa pagbalik sa mga bihag didto sa Jerusalem, tingali nagkatapok sila sa pag-ampo sa naguba nga Templo, ug nagpulipuli sa pagpadayag sa mga pagbangotan. Sa kadugayan, ila kining gipadayon sa matag tuig sa petsa sa pagkapukan, ug sa kadugayan, ang Simbahan naanad sa kustombre sa paggamit ini sa paghinumdom sa kamatayon ni Jesus.
Sa Pasyon sa atong Ginoo, may magtotoo nga nakakita sa kinatibuk-an nga pag-antos ug kahingawa sa katawhan. Kining maong mga balak makatabang sa paghiusa sa kasakit ni Cristo ug sa kakabos sa kadaghanan nga nag-antos, sa susamang pagbati. Makatabang ni sa pakighiusa sa panan-awon sa kalibutanong kasakit ug sa diwa sa tawhanong kasal-anan ug katungdanan.
Adunay tradisyon sa Judio nga nagpunting kang Jeremias ining maong mga balak. Nagpadayag ni sa espiritu nga pareho sa iyaha.
Translation: Spanish
Después de la ruina de Jerusalén y de las cosas horrendas que sucedieron en esta ocasión, los creyentes tratan de comprender. No se quejan, ven la ruina como castigo merecido por los muchos desórdenes y por el constante rechazo de las advertencias de Dios. Y, sin embargo, saben que Yavé ama a su pueblo, lo creen, lo sienten y lo afirman.
Cuando los desterrados volvieron a Jerusalén, muy posiblemente se reunían para orar en común en los escombros de lo que había sido el Templo, y juntos alternaban estos lamentos. Después siguieron rezándolos cada año en la fecha que recordaba la catástrofe, y más tarde la Iglesia se acostumbró a usarlos para recordar la muerte de Jesús.
En la Pasión del Señor, el creyente ve la acumulación de los sufrimientos y de las angustias de la humanidad. Estos poemas le ayudan a unir en una misma compasión los dolores de Cristo y la miseria inmensa de la muchedumbre de los que sufren, así como la visión del dolor universal y el sentido del pecado y de la responsabilidad de los hombres.
Una tradición judía atribuye a Jeremías estos poemas, que revelan un espíritu bien parecido al suyo.
(The Catholic Christian Community Bible [first English edition 1997, other translations into Indonesian, Chinese, Cebuano, Chavacano, French, Ilonggo, Korean, Quechuan, Spanish, and Tagalog] “for the Christian Communities of the Third World” uses the following introduction.)
“Hebrews” was the name given to the Jews who lived in Palestine, unlike the majority who had emigrated to other countries. This letter is addressed to the first Christian communities of Palestine, formed by Jews — by race –- who had been persecuted and punished and whose possessions had even been confiscated, all because they had become followers of Christ. They no longer had anything in this world and they had to encourage one another with the assurance that, at the conclusion of their exile, they would find the true Home where Jesus went after his suffering. In this way they were like their Hebrew ancestors who had lived in the desert, hoping and searching for the Promised Land.
It is helpful to know that this letter is addressed to people familiar with the Old Testament: they may well have been Jewish priests who had believed in Jesus and now were going through a serious crisis. Indeed, up until then the Temple had been their whole lives, since they were priests: they would offer sacrifices and would receive part of the sacrificed animals in payment. Now, not only had they been excluded and removed from the temple by the Jews, but Christ had replaced them. For he had come as the New Temple and the perfect victim pleasing to God, as the only Priest capable of putting people in touch with God.
He had relegated the Temple of Jerusalem and its cult to the rank of the out-moded. He, a layman had organized his Church, disregarding the priesthood of the “sons of Aaron,” the Jewish priests. The priest, he who is the link between humans and the all-holy God, was he and he alone.
So Christ had taken their work away from them, as well as their reason for being. At times, these men who had known Jesus, the man, had their doubts: was it certain that everything had changed because of him?
To confirm their faith, this letter shows them that the Jewish religion with its imposing ceremonies in the Temple of Jerusalem, was but the image of something greater. The pardon of sin and the spirit of religion – the aspiration of the entire Old Testament – was to be the work of the authentic priest of all humanity, Jesus, the Son of God. There is now no other sacrifice but his, which begins on the cross and ends in glory.
Are there not many “Hebrews” in today’s world? The sick who no longer have hope, the persecuted Christians, the people who do not accept the injustice and mediocrity of the society in which we live. Although many of them may not understand all the premises and biblical quotations in this letter, they will feel encouraged in the faith.
Besides, the word “priest” has become so important in the Church that it is useful to find here the biblical text which has gone deeper into the meaning of priesthood and its reorientation through the very fact of the sacrifice of Jesus.
This letter was written in Rome, perhaps in the year 66, when the war in which Jerusalem was destroyed was approaching. These were the last months of Paul’s life; he was imprisoned in Rome for the second time. This letter reflects Paul’s thoughts, but he did not write it. It is quite possible that the author is Apollos, mentioned in Acts 18:24-28, “a man well-versed in Scriptures” and who “proved from the Scriptures (the Old Testament) that Jesus is the Messiah.”
Down below are the introductions in the Mandarin Chinese, Tagalog, Cebuano, and Spanish editions.
“Hebreo” ang pangalang ikinapit sa mga Judio na nanirahan sa Palestina, di tulad ng marami sa kanila na nandayuhan sa mga ibang bansa. Ang sulat na ito ay iniukol sa mga unang pamayanang Kristiyano sa Palestina na binuo ng mga Judio -- ayon sa lahi -- na pinag-usig at pinarusahan na. ang mga ari-arian ay sinamsam pa, at ang lahat ng ito ay dahil naging tagasunod sila ni Kristo. Wala nang nalabi pasa kanila samundong ito, at sila-sila angnagpapalakassa loob ng isa’t isa, lakip ang paniniyak na sa wakas ng pagkatapon sa kanila ay matatagpuan nila ang tunay na Tahanan na tinunguhan ni Jesus pagkatapos ng Pasyon nito. Sa ganitong paraan ay gaya sila ng kanilang mga ninunong Hebreo na nanirahan sa ilang sa pag-asa at sa paghahanap sa Lupang Pangako.
Makatutulong na malaman na ang sulat na ito ay iniuukol sa mga taong kilala ang Matandang Tipan: maaaring sila ang mga paring Judio na sumampalataya kay Kristo at dahil dito ay nagdaraan sa isang matinding pagsubok. Talaga nga, na noon, ang Templo ang kanilang buong buhay sapagkat sila ay mga pari: naghandog sila ng mga sakripisyo at tumatanggap sila ng bahagi ng mga hayop na ginawang handog bilang kabayaran sa kanila. Gayunman, ngayon ay hindi lamang sila inalis at hindi na tinatanggap sa templo ng mga Judio. kundi pinalitan na rin sila ni Kristo. Sapagkat dumating siya bilang ang Bagong Templo at ang ganap na biktima. bilang tanging Pari na may kakayahang ilapit ang tao sa Diyos.
Sa gayon ay kinuha ni Kristo sa kanila ang kanilang gawain, pati ang tanging bokasyon nila. Kung minsan, ang mga lalaking ito na nakakilala kay Jesus ay nag-aalinlangan: nagbago na nga kaya ang lahat-lahat dahil sa kanya?
Upang patunayan ang kanilang pananampalataya, ipinakikita ng sulat na ito na ang relihiyong Judio, kasama ang maluningning na mga paghahandog sa Templo ng Jerusalem ay sagisag lamang ng isang higit na dakilang bagay: ang totoong Pari sa buong sangkatauhan ay si Jesus, ang Anak ng Diyos, at ngayon. ang nariyan ay ang kanyang pagpapakasakit na lamang, na nagsimula sa krus at nagwakas sa Luwalhati ng Langit.
Hindi ba marami ring “Hebreo” sa kasalukuyang daigdig? Ang mga maysakit na wala nang pag-asa, ang mga pinag-uusig na Kristiyano. ang mga taong hindi tinatanggap ang kawalang- katarungan at ang kababaang-uri ng lipunang ginagalawan natin. Bagamat hindi nila na- uunawaan ang lahat ng batayan at pagsipi ng mga kasabihang biblikal ng sulat na ito, mapalalakas naman ang loob ng mga taong ito sa kanilang pananampalataya.
Sa Roma sinulat ang liham na ito. Marahil ay noong taong 66, nang palapit na ang pakikidigma ng Jerusalem na nagwasak dito. Noon ang mga huling buwan ng buhay ni Pablo; nabilanggo siya sa Roma sa ikalawang pagkakataon. Masasalamin sa sulat na ito ang mga kaisipan ni Pablo, bagamat hindi niya isinulat. Malaki ang posibilidad na ang awtor ay si Apollos, na binabanggit sa Gawa 18:24-28, “isang lalaking malaki ang kaalaman sa Banal na Kasulatan” at “nakapagpatunay mula sa Kasulatan (Matandang Tipan) na si Jesus ang Mesiyas.”
Translation: Cebuano
“Hebreo” ang mga Judio nga nagpabilin sa Palestina, sukwahi sa kadaghanan nga milangyaw sa ubang nasod. Kining sulata gitumong sa unang mga Kristohanong Katilingban sa Palestina. Mga Judio sila nga nag-umol ining mga katilingbana. Gipanglutos sila, gisilotan ug gani gisakmitan sa kabtangan, kay nasumosunod sila ni Cristo. Namakaluluoy ug hininginlan sila; walay gahom gawas sa panaghiusa, ug sa pagsalig nga makaplagan ra ang matuod nga Pinuy-anan diin tua si Jesus human sa pag-antos. Ining paagiha, nahisama sila sa katigulangang mga Hebreo nga nagpuyo sa kamingawan, puno sa paglaom nga nangita sa Yuta sa Saad.
Angayng masayran nga gipahinungod ni sa may kasinatian sa Daang Kasabotan; mapari sila sa mga Judio nga nakabig kang Cristo ug nagsagubang og grabing kalisdanan. Kay mga pari, nakaapektar og dako ang Templo sa ilang kinabuhi; didto, maghalad silag mga sakripisyo ug makadawat og pahat sa gisakripisyong hayop isip bayad. Karon, dili lang kay gisalikway sila sa mga Judio ug gipalagpot sa Templo, si Cristo mismo ang mipuli. Ang Bag-o siyang Templo, ang hingpit nga biktima nga makapahimuot sa Diyos; ang bugtong Pari nga makapasig-uli sa tawo ngadto sa Diyos.
Busa, gipulihan ni Cristo ang ilang mga buluhaton ug tinoohan. Apan may mga higayon nga tungod sa ilang pag-ila ni Jesus nga tawo magduhaduha sila: tinuod kaha nga nakapausab si Jesus ining tanan?
Aron paglig-on sa pagtoo, gipakita ining sulata nga ang tinoohan sa mga Judio, uban sa mabulokang mga seremonyas sa Templo sa Jerusalem, pasiuna lang sa mas labawng kamatuoran: ang lunsay nga Pari sa tanang katawhan mao si Jesus, ang Anak sa Diyos; gihimo niya ang usa ra ka sakripisyo nga nagsugod sa krus ug natapos sa Himaya sa Langit.
Daghan ba ang mga “Hebreo” sa kalibotan karon? Ang mga masakiton nga nawad-ag paglaom, ang gilutos nga kristyanos, ang dili makadawat sa mga inhustisya ug sa tipo sa sosyedad karon. Bisag daghan nila dili makatugkad sa gipamahayag ining sulata, malig-on sila ini sa pagtoo.
Gisulat ni sa Roma, lagmit sa tuig 66, sa nagsingabot na ang dakong gubot kanus-a lumpagon ang Jerusalem. Mao ni ang kataposang mga bulan sa kinabuhi ni Pablo; ang ikaduha niyang pagkabilanggo sa Roma. Dili ni sinulat ni Pablo, apan nagpadayag sa iyang mga hunahuna. Dako ang purohan nga gisulat ni ni Apolo nga gihisgotan sa mga Buhat 18:24-28; naila nga “maayong mosulti ug batid sa Kasulatan ug nagmatuod gikan sa Kasulatan nga si Jesus ang Mesiyas.”
Translation: Spanish
En tiempos de los apóstoles se calificaba de Hebreos a los judíos que vivían en Palestina, a diferencia de esa mayoría de su pueblo que había emigrado a diversos países, por todo el Imperio Romano. Esta carta está dirigida a las comunidades cristianas de Palestina que se habían formado con judíos de raza después de Pentecostés.
Como discípulos de Cristo habían sido perseguidos, y a algunos les habían sido confiscados los bienes. Ya no tenían nada en el mundo y debían darse ánimo unos a otros con la convicción de que, al fin de su exilio, encontrarían la verdadera patria a donde Jesús se había ido después de sus sufrimientos. Volvían así a encontrarse en la situación de sus antepasados hebreos que habían vivido en el desierto, aguardando y buscando una tierra prometida.
No será difícil ver que esta carta se dirige a personas familiarizadas con el Antiguo Testamento; podría tratarse de sacerdotes judíos que habían reconocido a Jesús como el Cristo y que pasaban entonces por una crisis.
Siendo sacerdotes, el Templo había sido toda su vida hasta ese momento; ofrecían sacrificios y recibían en paga una parte de los animales ofrecidos. Pero ahora, no solamente habían sido excluidos y expulsados del Templo por los judíos, sino que de cualquier modo Cristo los había reemplazado.
Creer en Cristo significaba reconocerlo como el nuevo Templo, del que el edificio sagrado de Jerusalén no era más que figura. Él, laico, había organizado su Iglesia sin tomar en cuenta el sacerdocio de los «hijos de Aarón», los sacerdotes judíos, pues él y sólo él es el sacerdote, el que pone a los hombres en contacto con el Dios santísimo.
De ese modo Cristo les había quitado tanto su trabajo como su razón de ser. Por eso a veces esos hombres, que habían conocido a Jesús en su existencia humana, habrán sentido la duda: ¿acaso todo ha cambiado a causa de él?
Para confirmar su fe, esta carta les muestra que la religión judía, con sus ceremonias grandiosas en el Templo de Jerusalén, no era más que la imagen de algo más grande. El perdón de los pecados y la religión en espíritu, aspiración de todo el Antiguo Testamento, debían ser la obra del sacerdote auténtico de toda la humanidad, Jesús, el Hijo de Dios. Ya no hay otro sacrificio fuera del suyo, sacrificio que comienza en la cruz y termina en la gloria.
¿No hay también muchos Hebreos, o personas desarraigadas en el mundo de hoy? Los enfermos que no tienen esperanza, los cristianos perseguidos, los que no aceptan la injusticia ni la mediocridad de la sociedad. Aunque muchos de ellos no comprendan todos los argumentos o las citas bíblicas que llenan estas páginas, esta carta los animará en su fe.
Por otro lado, la palabra sacerdote ha tomado una importancia tal en la Iglesia que no está de más examinar aquí el texto bíblico que ha profundizado más el sentido del sacerdocio y su reorientación por el hecho mismo del sacrificio de Cristo.
Esta carta fue escrita desde Roma, tal vez hacia el año 66, cuando se anunciaba la guerra en la que iba a ser destruida Jerusalén. Eran también los últimos meses de la vida de Pablo; él estaba prisionero en Roma por segunda vez. Esta carta no es extraña al pensamiento de Pablo, pero él no la escribió. Es muy posible que su autor haya sido Apolo, mencionado en Hechos 18,24-28, «hombre muy versado en las Escrituras y que demostraba por las Escrituras que Jesús es el Mesías».
Chicahuaxtla Triqui: “cover over” (a figure of speech which is also employed in Hebrew, but which in many languages is not acceptable, because it implies “hiding” or “concealment”)
Warao: “not being concerned with him clean your obonja.” Obonja is a term that “includes the concepts of consciousness, will, attitude, attention and a few other miscellaneous notions” (source: Henry Osborn in The Bible Translator 1969, p. 74ff. See other occurrences of Obojona in the Warao New Testament.)
Martu Wangka: “throw out badness” (source: Carl Gross)
Kyaka: “burn the jaw bones” — This goes back to the pre-Christian custom of hanging the jaw bones of murdered relatives on ones door frame until the time of revenge. Christians symbolically burned those bones to show forgiveness which in turn became the word for “forgiveness” (source: Eugene Nida, according to this blog )
Koonzime: “remove the bad deed-counters” (“The Koonzime lay out the deeds symbolically — usually strips of banana leaf — and rehearse their grievances with the person addressed.”) (Source: Keith and Mary Beavon in Notes on Translation 3/1996, p. 16)
Ngbaka: ele: “forgive and forget” (Margaret Hill [in Holzhausen & Ridere 2010, p. 8f.] recalls that originally there were two different words used in Ngbaka, one for God (ɛlɛ) and one for people (mbɔkɔ — excuse something) since it was felt that people might well forgive but, unlike God, can’t forget. See also this lectionary in The Christian Century.
Amahuaca: “erase” / “smooth over” (“It was an expression the people used for smoothing over dirt when marks or drawings had been made in it. It meant wiping off dust in which marks had been made, or wiping off writing on the blackboard. To wipe off the slate, to erase, to take completely away — it has a very wide meaning and applies very well to God’s wiping away sins, removing them from the record, taking them away.”) (Source: Robert Russel, quoted in Walls / Bennett 1959, p. 193)
Gonja / Dangme: “lend / loan” (in the words of one Dangme scholar: “When you sin and you are forgiven, you forget that you have been forgiven, and continue to sin. But when you see the forgiveness as a debt/loan which you will pay for, you do not continue to sin, else you have more debts to pay” — quoted in Jonathan E.T. Kuwornu-Adjaottor in Ibadan Journal of Religious Studies 17/2 2010, p. 67ff. )
Kwere: kulekelela, meaning literally “to allow for.” Derived from the root leka which means “to leave.” In other words, forgiveness is leaving behind the offense in relationship to the person. It is also used in contexts of setting someone free. (Source: Megan Barton)
Merina Malagasy: mamela or “leave / let go (of sin / mistakes)” (source: Brigitte Rabarijaona)
Mauwake: “take away one’s heaviness” (compare sin as “heavy”) (source: Kwan Poh San in this article )
The translation of the tetragrammaton (YHWH or יהוה) is easily the most often discussed issue in Bible translation. This is exemplified by the fact that there is virtually no translation of the Bible — regardless of language — where the position of the respective translator or translation team on how to translate the name of God into the respective language is not clearly stated in the preface or introduction.
Click or tap here to read about the different ways the tetragrammaton is and has been translated
The literature on this topic is overwhelming, both as far as the meaning of YHWH and the translation of it by itself and in combination with other terms (including Elohim and Adonai). There is no reason or room to rehash those discussions. Aside from various insightful translations of YHWH into various languages (see below), what’s of interest in the context of this tool are official and semi-official statements regarding the translation by Bible translation agencies and churches. These include the 1992 statement by United Bible Societies’ “Names of God” Study Group (see The Bible Translator 1992, p. 403-407 ) or the “Letter to the Bishops’ Conference on ‘The Name of God'” by the Congregatio de Cultu Divino et Discriplina Sacramentorum of 2008 (see here et al.).
In summary, the UBS study group gives six different options on how to translate YHWH: 1) transliterate (some form of “Yahweh” or “Jehovah” if this is an already established term); 2) translate (along the lines of kurios — κύριος in the Septuagint); 3) translate the meaning of YHWH; 4) use a culture-specific name; 5) translate Elohim and YHWH in the same way; or 6) use a combination of any of these options.
The official Catholic directive states that for liturgical purposes YHWH is to be translated as an equivalent of Kurios (“Lord”) unless when appearing in combination with Elohim (“God”) or Adonai (“lord”), in which case it’s to be translated with “God.”
In the following collection of examples, any of the above-mentioned strategies are used.
Use of Typographical Means to Offset the Name of God
A large number of Bible translations in many Western European languages have used a similar strategy to translate YHWH as an equivalent of Kurios or Adonai (“lord” in Greek in Hebrew) but have used either small caps or all caps to denote these occurrences as an equivalent to a proper name. Here are some examples:
None of the European languages have found a “cultural-linguistic equivalent” with the possible exception of Eternal or l’Éternel (see below).
The rendering of the translation of YHWH in bold (and uppercase) characters is for instance used in Guhu-Samane: QOBEROBA (a term of address for a respected person and also connotes “forever”) (for “forever”, see below under Translations of the Name of God) and the upper-casing in Bible translations in several other languages in Papua New Guinea:
In Cebuano (Ang Pulong sa Dios edition, 2010) and Hiligaynon (all versions), Ginoo, a typographical variant of Ginoo (“Lord”) is used. Bible translation consultant Kermit Titrud (SIL): “‘Yahweh’ is too close to Yahwa, their word for ‘Satan.’ We were afraid that in the pulpits readers might misread ‘Yahweh’ and say ‘Yahwa.’ So we went with the tradition found in most English translations. Ginoo for ‘Yahweh’ and Ginoo for ‘adonai.'”
In languages where capitalization is not a typographical option, other options are available and used, such as in Japanese, where the generic term shu 主 for “Lord” is bolded in some translations to offset its meaning (Source: Omanson, p. 17).
In Pattani Malay, the word for “Lord” is underlined: ربي. (Source: Andy Warren-Rothlin)
A graphical way of representation beyond typography was used by André Chouraqui in his French La Bible hebraique et le Nouveau Testament (publ. 1974-1977) for which he superimposed adonai and Elohim over (the French rendition) of the tetragrammaton:
(Source: Andy Warren-Rothlin in Noss / Houser, p. 618ff.; see also tempt God / put God to the test)
Translations of the Name of God
A translation of YHWH with a rendering of the meaning of “Eternal” was done in English by James Moffatt (between 1926 and 1935) with Eternal, The Voice translation with Eternal One (2012), in French versions as L’ÉTERNEL by J. F. Ostervald in 1904 or l’Éternel by L. Segond (1910-1938, not in more recent revisions) and Zadoc Kahn (1964) (for the French translation, see also LORD of hosts), in Esperanto as “la Eternulo,” and in Obolo as Okumugwem: “The Ever-Living” (source: Enene Enene). In francophone Africa, translations of l’Éternel are widely used, due to the wide use of Segond’s early editions (see above). Examples include Nancere (Nandjéré) with Kumuekerteri, Ngambay (Ngambaï) with Njesigənea̰, Sar with Kɔ́ɔ̄ɓē, Mbay (Mbaï) with Bïraþe, Kim with Bage ɗiŋnedin, or Lélé uses Gojɛnɛkirɛkindiy (verbatim: “who remains for his eyes”). (Source: Andy Warren-Rothlin)
Similarly and at the same time expanding its meaning, the Nzima translation of 1998 translated YHWH as Ɛdεnkεma, the “Eternal All-Powerful Creator and Sustainer” (Source: David Ekem in The Bible Translator 2005, p. 72ff. ).
“Creator” is also used in Kazakh (Zharatkhan [Жаратқан]), Karakalpak (Zharatkhan [Жаратқан], sometimes in combination with Iyeg [Ийег] — “Master”), and Kirghiz (Zharatkhan [Жаратқан], likewise in combination with “Master” or Ege [Эге]). (Source: David Gray).
Nepali, Bengali, and Hindi are all derived from Sanskrit and have (eventually) all found similar translations of YHWH. In Bengali “God” is translated as Ishwar (ঈশ্বর) (widely used in Hindu scriptures, where it’s used as a title, usually associated with “Siva”) and YHWH as Shodaphrobhu (সদাপ্রভু) — “Eternal Lord”; in Nepali and NewariYHWH is translated as Paramaprabhu (परमप्रभु)– “Supreme Lord”; and Hindi translates YHWH as Phrabu (प्रभु) — “Lord.” In earlier translations all three languages used transliterations of Jehovah or Yahweh. (Source: B. Rai in The Bible Translator 1992, p. 443ff. and Barrick, p. 124).
The influential German Jewish translation of Martin Buber and Franz Rosenzweig (between 1925 and 1961) translates YHWH in Exodus 3:15 with “Ich bin da” (“I exist” or “I am”) and in all other instances with pronouns in small caps (Er, Ihm, Ihn, Ich — “he,” “him,” “his,” “I”).
The Jewish orthodox English ArtScroll Tanach translation (publ. 2011) uses Hashem or “The Name”
In the Bavarian translation by Sturmibund (publ. 1998), it is translated as Trechtein or “Sovereign, Lord.” “Trechtein” is related to the obsolete English “drighten.” (Source: Zetzsche)
In Ge’ez, Tigrinya, and Amharic it is translated with Igziabeher (እግዚአብሔር) or “Ruler/Lord of the Nations/Peoples.” In Ge’ez Igziabeher is used for “God” as well, whereas in Tigrinya and Amharic it is often, but not always used for “God.” In a recent revision by Biblica (see here ), an attempt was made to use Igziabeher exclusively for occurrences of the tetragrammaton in the Hebrew Bible, but after strong responses by the Christian community, a compromise was found by using Igziabeher in the first chapter of Genesis and changing it according to the Hebrew text elsewhere. (Source: Zetseat Fekadu)
Warlpiri uses Kaatu Jukurrarnu (Kaatu is a transcription of “God” and Jukurrarnu means “timelessness” and shares a root with jukurrpa — dreamings) (Source: Stephen Swartz, The Bible Translator 1985, p. 415ff. ).
The translation of YHWH into Weri with Aniak Tupup or “man of the holy house” intends “to maintain the Jewish practice of not uttering God’s name [with] the use of another vernacular phrase that signals that a ‘taboo’ name is being referred [which] could give a cue that would be recognizable in written or oral communication” (Source: P. King, The Bible Translator 2014, p. 195ff. ).
Aruamu translates it as Ikiavɨra Itir God or “Ever Present God” (source: Pioneer Bible Translators, project-specific translation notes in Paratext)
Idakho-Isukha-Tiriki: Nyasaye Wuvunyali Muno or “God powerful great” (source: Andy Warren-Rothlin)
Ruund uses Chinawej, a term that is otherwise used as a response of approval. Anna Lerbak (in The Bible Translator 1954, p. 84ff. ) tells the genesis of this term (click or tap to see an explanation):
“The name ‘Jehovah’ had been used in some contexts, but I had the feeling that it did not mean much to the people, and when I asked the pastors they all said it didn’t, and worse, it very often confused people, especially in the villages. During the conversation it was suggested that the name Chinawej be used in the place of ‘Jehovah’, and this met with immediate approval. A few days later I was working on a Psalm in which ‘Jehovah’ was used frequently, so I wrote Chinawej in its place and then read the Psalm to them. The response was about like this: “That is it, now people will understand, that is how Chinawej is. The Jews call God ‘Jehovah’, we call Him Chinawej, it is the same God. but we know Him as Chinawej as the Jews know Him as ‘Jehovah’ “. They often call God Chinawej in prayer, it seems to indicate warmth and intimacy.
The same word is used in two other ways. It is the name of a snake which never attacks human beings. And it is used as a response of approval. When told of something they are pleased to hear, something they find good, just, helpful, generous, they often respond by saying, Chinawej. When they call God Chinawej, it indicates that they think of Him as One Who is good and just and generous towards them. When it was suggested at the committee that we use Chinawej in place of ‘Jehovah’ it was accepted immediately and unanimously.
Ebira has Eneyimavara. Eneyimavara was created by merging a praise phrase that was only used for the traditional deity Ohomorihi (see here), that had become the word for the Christian God: ene e yi ma vara or “the one that never changes.” “The translators came to the agreement that this praise name that describes the unchangeableness of God is very close in meaning to the probable meaning of YHWH.” (Source: David O Moomo in Scriptura 88 (2005), p. 151ff. )
The Uzbek Bible uses the term Ega (Эга) — “master, owner” in various forms (including Egam / Эгам for “my Owner” or Egamiz / Эгамиз for “our Owner.” (Click or tap to see an explanation):
Jim Zvara (2019, p. 6) explains: “The Uzbek term ega means owner or master (‘master,’ in the historical context of an owner-slave relationship). By extension, it is natural for an Uzbek to speak to or refer to God as Egam (‘my owner’/’master’). In the Uzbek context to be God’s slave is a positive way of understanding one’s relation to him. It suggests that one is in a dependent and obedient relationship to God. The team felt that this relational connection and what it implies fits well with the concept of YHWH as the God who is in a covenant relationship with his people. In the Uzbek context, the choice of Ega was deemed to be the best balance of natural language with meaningful translation.”
The Seediq Bible translation team chose Utux Tmninun (“the weaving god”) for their translation of YHWH. (Click or tap to see a retelling of the process of how that decision was reached):
“(…) The Seediq team requested that we spend time with them on key terms. They had compiled a list of key terms that they wanted input on, and we went through the list item by item. The most important item was how to deal with the divine name. They had tentatively translated it as Yehoba, transliterated from Jehovah, but they were also aware that this transliteration may not be accurate, and they were keen to explore other options.
“We explored various alternatives. Were they interested in following the ancient Jewish practice of substituting ‘Lord’ for the divine name? Would capitalising the letters help? Would they be bold enough to use ‘Yahweh,’ following the opinion of most Old Testament scholars who regard this as the correct pronunciation? Was it feasible to adopt a mixed approach in dealing with the divine name (…)? Each option had its advantages as well as disadvantages.
“In the midst of the discussion, a participant said, ‘Our ancestors, as well as we today, always call God by the term Utux Tmninun. I suggest we use this term.’ The term Utux Tmninun in the Seediq culture means ‘the weaving God.’ In their culture, God is the weaver, the one who weaves life together. All the participants were excited about this proposal. They tried this term with all the composite terms that involve the divine name, and it seemed to work well, so they decided tentatively to adopt this term. After the workshop, the participants went back to their villages and sought feedback from the wider community, and eventually they confirmed the use of the term Utux Tmninun as the rendering of the divine name.
Translating the divine name as Utux Tmninun, the weaving God, is a creative solution. This term is viewed very positively in the Seediq community. It also correlates well with the concept of God as the creator (Gen. 1-2) and as the weaver who formed our inward parts and knit us together in our mothers’ wombs (Ps. 139:13). It also has the advantage of portraying God beyond the traditional masculine form.
“Some may argue that since names are usually transliterated, we should do the same with YHWH, most likely pronounced ‘Yahweh.’ Unfortunately, due to the influence of Chinese Union Version for almost one hundred years now, Chinese Christians only know God as Yehehua. Attempts to change the term Yehehua to Yahweh have not been successful. This is a reality that the Seediq Christians have to live with.
“Others may argue on theological grounds that YHWH is not only the creator, but also the God of the covenant, hence any attempt to substitute another term for YHWH will not do justice to the Hebrew text. In the case of the Seediq translation, there are significant similarities between Utux Tmninun and YHWH, though the terms are not identical. This is a reality translators often have to struggle with. Exact correspondence is hard to come by. Often it is a matter of approximation, give and take. Besides theological considerations, one has to deal with the constraints of past traditions (‘Jehovah,’ in this instance), the biblical cultures and one’s own culture, and audience acceptance. Hopefully, by using Utux Tmninun for YHWH, the Seediq term will be transformed and take on the aspect of the covenant God as well.” (Source: Yu Suee Yan, The Bible Translator 2015, p. 316ff. )
Nyankore: Nyakubaho or “the one who is from within itself” (source: Bühlmann 1950, p. 146)
‘One local dialect of Carpathian Romani: Drágon Dél or “Beloved/Dear God.” In most Romani dialects, the word Rai (Lord/Boss/landlord/shopkeeper) is sort-of acceptable, but in one particular subgroup of Carpathian Romani they said it only meant shopkeeper and ‘everyone knows that [majority term for YHWH] means God, and why can’t we translate it that way?’ We tried to explain, but they weren’t keen on anything but Dél (‘God’). We eventually compromised with Drágon Dél, a common expression for YHWH, and Dél for Elohim, but it took quite a lot of convincing them that there was any theological point there.
For the interconessional translation into Chichewa (publ. 1999) the term Chauta (“Great-One-of-the-Bow”) was chosen for YHWH (Click or tap to see the detailed story):
“The name Chauta, literally ‘Great-One-of-the-Bow’, i.e. [is] either the rainbow (descriptively termed uta-wa-Leza ‘the-bow-of-God’) or, less likely, the hunter’s bow. And yet Chauta was also distinct from Mulungu [“God”] in that it has reference to the specific tribal deity of the Chewa people — the God who ‘owns’ yet also ‘belongs to’ them — and hence it carries additional positive emotive overtones. Although research indicated that in an ancient traditional setting, Chauta too was probably associated with the indigenous ancestral rain cult, in the Christian era it has been progressively generalized to encompass virtually all religious contexts in which God may be either appealed to, proclaimed, or praised. After prolonged deliberation, therefore, the translation committee determined Chauta to be the closest functional equivalent to YHWH of the Hebrew Scriptures. The choice of this name is not without its difficulties, however, and these were carefully considered by the Chewa committee. For example, the use of a more specific local term, as opposed to the generic Mulungu, carries a greater likelihood of bringing along with it certain senses, connotations, and situations that were (and no doubt still are) associated with the indigenous, pre-Christian system of worship. If these happened to remain strong in any contemporary sacred setting, then of course the dangers connected with conceptual syncretism might well arise. In the case of Chauta, however, it appeared that the process of positive Christian contextualization had already reached an advanced stage, that is, judging from the widespread use of this name in all aspects of religious life and practice. A more scholarly argument against Chauta takes the position that there is too great a female component associated with this term because it was traditionally applied (by figurative metonymy) to refer also to the ritual ‘wife of God’, i.e. the chief officiant at a traditional rain shrine and worship sanctuary. However, this usage seems to be quite remote, and most people questioned do not even recognize the connection anymore. Besides, in a matrilineal society such as the Chewa, it does not seem inappropriate to have this aspect of meaning lying in the background, particularly since it is not completely foreign to the notion of God in the Bible (cf. Ps. 36:7; 73:15; Isa. 49:14-15; Mt. 23:37). In terms of ‘connotative fit’ or emotive identification and appeal, there can be little doubt that the name Chauta is by far the closest natural equivalent to YHWH in the contemporary Chewa cultural and religious environment. This aspect of meaning was probably also utmost from the ancient Jewish perspective as well; in other words, “for them the associated meaning of this special name [YHWH], in terms of their history and culture, far outweighed any meaning it may have suggested because of its form or derivation”. To be sure, this ‘new’ divine name — that is, new as far as the Scriptures are concerned — may take some getting used to, especially in the formal setting of public worship. But this is not a foreign god whom we are talking about; rather, he is certainly by now regarded as the national deity of the Chewa nation. Chauta is the great God who for one reason or another ‘did not make himself known to them by his holy name, the LORD’ (Exod. 6:3), that is, in the prior translations of his Word into Chewa. He is, however, and always has been “a God who saves … the LORD (Chauta), our Lord, who rescues us from death” (Ps. 68:20, Good News Bible)!” (Source: Wendland 1998, 120f.; see also The Bible Translator 1992, 430ff. )
Transliteration of YHWH
A 12th century reading of the Masoretic vowel points around יהוה (יְהֹוָה) was interpreted to be pronounced as Yehowah from which Iehouah and Jehovah were derived. This was reflected in the English versions of Tyndale (publ. 1530) and the Geneva Bible (significantly based on Tyndale and publ. in 1560) and again the King James Version (Authorized Version) (publ. 1611) which all used Iehouah or Jehovah in 7 different verses in the Old Testament. The translators and editors of the American Standard Version (publ. 1901), a review of the King James Version used Jehovah for all appearances of the tetragrammaton something that the Spanish Reina-Valera (publ. 1602) had already done as well.
In English versions, Yahweh as a transliteration of the tetragrammaton is used by the Catholic Jerusalem Bible (publ. 1966), the Protestant Holman Christian Standard Bible (publ. 2004) and the Legacy Standard Bible (publ. 2021). The Catholic translation by Knox (publ. 1949) occasionally uses Javé, “to make it a Latin name, to match all the other names in the Old Testament.” (Source Knox 1949, p. 80)
Mandinka for instance uses Yawe for YHWH. “The use of Yawe for YHWH is good and may be a trendsetter in this part of Africa.” (Source: Rob Koops)
In a group of related languages in another part of Africa an interesting development from a transliteration to a indigenous translation can be shown: In the Nandi Bible (1938) Jehovah was used as a translation for YHWH. Kamuktaindet (“The Powerful One”) was used as a translation for Elohim (“God”). This was taken over by a translation into the macrolanguage Kalenjin (1969) (intended to include the closely related Keiyo, Kipsigis, Markweeta, Nandi, Okiek, Sabaot, Terik, and Tugen). Sabaot, Markweeta, Tugen and Okiek later wanted there own translations. Both Sabaot and Markweeta use the indigenous word for “Creator” (Yēyiin in Sabaot and Iriin in Markweeta) to translate Elohim and YHWH of the Old Testament and Theos of the New Testament. The Kalenjin Bible has recently been revised to cater to Keiyo, Kipsigis, Nandi and Terik, and this revision has completely dropped Jehovah in favour of Kamuktaindet. (Source: Iver Larsen)
Early translations into Gilbertese faced a problem when transliterating “Jehovah” (a form of “Jehovah” was first used in Spanish Bible translations in 1569 and 1602): “There are only thirteen letters in the Kiribati alphabet: A, E, I, O, U, M, N, NG, B, K, R, T (pronounced [s] when followed by ‘i’), W For instance, ‘Jehovah’ is rendered Iehova, but Kiribati speakers can only pronounce it as ‘Iowa,’ since the phonemes [h] and [v] do not exist in Kiribati.” (source: Joseph Hong, The Bible Translator 1994, p. 329ff. .)
In a recent edition of a Thai translation (Thai Standard Version, publ. 2011) a combination of translation and transliteration is used: phra’ ya(h)we (h) (พระยาห์เวห์) (“Divine Yawe”). (Source: Stephen Pattemore)
In Nyarafolo Senoufo the transliteration is Yewe which also means “the being one” or “he that is.” David DeGraaf (in: Notes on Translation 3/1999, p. 34ff.) explains: “Since it is widely recognized that the vowels of the name are uncertain, another possible transliteration is Yewe. This proposal is in accord with the Nyarafolo rules of vowel harmony and is thus open to being understood as a normal nominalization in the language. Second, Yewe is exactly the word that would be formed by nominalizing the verb ‘to be’ in the class that includes sentient beings. Thus, Yewe can be understood as ‘the being one’ or ‘he that is’. This solution accords well with YHWH’s self-revelation to Moses in Exodus 3:14, ‘I am who I am.'”
In the Literary and Mandarin Chinese (Protestant) tradition the transliteration of “Jehovah” is historically deeply rooted, even though there are also some historical burdens (Click or tap to see more details):
“YHWH” is rendered in the Chinese Union Version — the most widely used Bible translation in China—as well as most other Chinese Bible translations as yehehua 耶和華. According to Chinese naming conventions, yehehua could be interpreted as Ye Hehua, in which Ye would be the family name and Hehua — “harmonic and radiant” — the given name. In the same manner, Ye would be the family name of Jesus (transliterated as yesu 耶穌) and Su would be the given name. Because in China the children inherit the family name from the father, the sonship of Jesus to God the Father, yehehua, would be illustrated through this. Though this line of argumentation sounds theologically unsound, it is indeed used effectively in the Chinese church.” (see Wright 1953, p. 298, see also Jesus).
“Ye 耶, an interrogative particle in classical Chinese, is part of the same phonetic series as ye 爺, which gives it a certain exchangeability. Ye 爺 carries the meaning “father” or is used as an honorable form of address. The choice of the first Bible translators to use the transliteration yehehua 爺火華 for Jehovah had a remarkable and sobering influence on the history of the 19th century in China by possibly helping to shape the fatal Taiping ideology, a rebellion that ended up costing an estimated 20 million lives.
“The founder of the Taiping rebellion, Hong Xiuquan, was given a tract (…) [that he used to] interpret a nervous breakdown he had had in 1837 as his “call” to be the “Messiah.” This “vision” that Hong experienced is likely to have had a direct correlation with the name of “God” in that tract. Shen yehuohua 神爺火華 (directly translated: ‘God (or: spirit); old man (or: father); fire; bright)” was the term that was used in that tract for ‘God Jehovah,’ but this was not indicated as a (in its second part) transliteration of a proper name. In his vision, Hong saw ‘a man venerable in years (corresponding with ye), with golden (corresponding with huo and hua) beard and dressed in a black robe,’ an image likely to have been inspired by a direct translation from that name for ‘God,’ especially as it appeared at the beginning of the tract. That this term was considered to be a term of some relevance to the Taiping ideology is demonstrated by the fact that both yehuohua 爺火華 as the personal name of God and ye 爺 as “God the Father” later appeared in Taiping writings.” (Source: Zetzsche in Malek 2002, p. 141ff.)
In American Sign Language it is translated with a sign that combines the letter Y and a sign that points up and is similar to the sign for “God.” (Source: Ruth Anna Spooner, Ron Lawer)
“YHWH” in American Sign Language, source: Deaf Harbor
In British Sign Language is is translated with a sign that combines the signs for “God” and “name” and the finger-spelling of Y-H-W-H. (Source: Anna Smith)
“YHWH” in British Sign Language (source: Christian BSL, used with permission)
Japanese Sign Language combines the sign for “Lord” with “exist” to make a name sign that technically means “the existent one,” but is close enough to “Lord” that it isn’t too jarring for people in the church who expect to see “Lord” in certain contexts (source: Mark Penner). For a Japanese Sign Language explanation, see here.
“YHWH” in Japanese Sign Language, source: 日本手話訳聖書を
For further reading on the translation of YHWH, see Rosin 1956, p. 89-125 and Andy Warren-Rothlin in Noss / Houser, p. 618ff.
