Language-specific Insights

disciple

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The Greek that is often translated as “disciple” in English typically follows three types of translation: (1) those which employ a verb ‘to learn’ or ‘to be taught’, (2) those which involve an additional factor of following, or accompaniment, often in the sense of apprenticeship, and (3) those which imply imitation of the teacher.

Following are some examples (click or tap for details):

  • Ngäbere: “word searcher”
  • Yaka: “one who learned from Jesus”
  • Navajo (Dinė), Western Highland Purepecha, Tepeuxila Cuicatec, Lacandon: “one who learned”
  • San Miguel El Grande Mixtec: “one who studied with Jesus”
  • Northern Grebo: “one Jesus taught”
  • Toraja-Sa’dan: “child (i.e., follower) of the master”
  • Indonesian: “pupil” (also used in many Slavic languages, including Russian [ученик], Bulgarian [учени́к], Ukrainian [учень], or Polish [uczeń] — source: Paul Amara)
  • Central Mazahua: “companion whom Jesus taught”
  • Kipsigis, Loma, Copainalá Zoque: “apprentice” (implying continued association and learning)
  • Cashibo-Cacataibo: “one who followed Jesus”
  • Huautla Mazatec: “his people” (essentially his followers and is the political adherents of a leader)
  • Highland Puebla Nahuatl: based on the root of “to imitate” (source for this and all above: Bratcher / Nida)
  • Chol: “learner” (source: Larson 1998, p. 107)
  • Waorani: “one who lives following Jesus” (source: Wallis 1973, p. 39)
  • Ojitlán Chinantec: “learner” (Source: M. Larson / B. Moore in Notes on Translation February 1970, p. 1-125.)
  • Javanese: “pupil” or “companion” (“a borrowing from Arabic that is a technical term for Mohammed’s close associates”)
  • Cherokee: “those by whom one is followed” (source: Bender / Belt 2025, p. 23)
  • Toposa: “one who is caused to think” (note that “teacher” is “one who causes to think”) (source: Schröder 2026, p. 101)
  • German: Jünger or “younger one” (source for this and one above: Reiling / Swellengrebel)
  • German New Testament translation by Berger / Nord (publ. 1999): Jüngerinnen und Jünger or “female and male disciples.” Note that Berger/Nord only use that translation in many cases in the gospel of Luke, “because especially according to Luke (see 8:1–3), women were part of the extended circle of disciples” (see p. 452 and looked up at his disciples).
  • Noongar: ngooldjara-kambarna or “friend-follow” (source: Warda-Kwabba Luke-Ang)
  • French 1985 translation by Chouraqui: adept or “adept” (as in a person who is skilled or proficient at something). Watson (2023, p. 48ff.) explains (click or tap here to see more):

    [Chouraqui] uses the noun “adept,” which is as uncommon in French as it is in English. It’s an evocative choice on several levels. First, linguistically, it derives — via the term adeptus — from the Latin verb adipiscor, “to arrive at; to reach; to attain something by effort or striving.” It suggests those who have successfully reached the goal of their searching, and implies a certain struggle or process of learning that has been gradually overcome. But it’s also a term with a very particular history: in the Middle Ages, “adept” was used in the world of alchemy, to describe those who, after years of labor and intensive study, claimed to have discovered the Great Secret (how to turn base metals like lead into gold); it thus had the somewhat softened meaning of “someone who is completely skilled in all the secrets of their field.”

    Historians of religion often use the term adept with reference to the ancient mystery religions that were so prevalent in the Mediterranean in the centuries around the time of Jesus. An adept was someone who, through a series of initiatory stages, had penetrated into the inner, hidden mysteries of the religion, who understood its rituals, symbols, and their meaning. To be an adept implied a lengthy and intensive master-disciple relationship, gradually being led further and further into the secrets of the god or goddess (Isis-Osiris, Mithras, Serapis, Hermes, etc.) — secrets that were never to be revealed to an outsider.

    Is “adept” a suitable category in which to consider discipleship as we see it described in the Gospels? On some levels, the link is an attractive one, drawing both upon the social-religious framework of the ancient Mediterranean, and upon certain aspects of intimacy and obscurity/secrecy that we see in the relationship of Jesus and those who followed him. The idea that disciples are “learners” — people who are “on the way” — and that Jesus is portrayed as (and addressed as) their Master/Teacher is accurate. But the comparison is unsatisfactory on several other levels.

    First, the Gospels portray Jesus’s ministry as a largely public matter — there is relatively little of the secrecy and exclusiveness that is normally associated with both the mystery cults and medieval alchemy. Jesus’s primary message is not destined for a small, elite circle of “initiates” — although the Twelve are privy to explanations, experiences and teachings that are not provided to “the crowds.” For example, in Matthew 13:10-13:

    Then the disciples came and asked him, “Why do you speak to [the crowds] in parables?” He answered, “To you it has been given to know the secrets of the kingdom of heaven, but to them it has not been given. For to those who have, more will be given, and they will have an abundance; but from those who have nothing, even what they have will be taken away. The reason I speak to them in parables is that ‘seeing they do not perceive, and hearing they do not listen, nor do they understand.’”

    Etymologically, adeptus suggests someone who “has arrived,” who has attained a superior level of understanding reserved for very few. However, what we see in the Gospels, repeatedly, is a general lack of comprehension of many of Jesus’s key teachings by many of those who hear him. Many of his more cryptic sayings would have been virtually incomprehensible in their original context, and would only make sense in retrospect, in the wake of the events of Jesus’s passion, death, and resurrection. The intense master-student relationship is also lacking: the Gospels largely portray “the disciples” as a loose (and probably fluctuating) body of individuals, with minimal structure or cohesion. Finally, there seems to be little scholarly consensus about the degree to which the mystery cults had made inroads in Roman-ruled Palestine during the decades of Jesus’s life. According to Everett Ferguson in his Backgrounds of Early Christianity.

    Although Christianity had points of contact with Stoicism, the mysteries, the Qumran community, and so on, the total worldview was often quite different….So far as we can tell, Christianity represented a new combination for its time…. At the beginning of the Christian era a number of local mysteries, some of great antiquity, flourished in Greece and Asia Minor. In the first century A.D. the vonly mysteries whose extension may be called universal were the mysteries of Dionysus and those of the eastern gods, especially Isis.

    And Norman Perrin and Dennis C. Duling note, in their book The New Testament:

    Examples of such mystery religions could be found in Greece… Asia Minor… Syria-Palestine… Persia… and Egypt. Though the mysteries had sacred shrines in these regions, many of them spread to other parts of the empire, including Rome. There is no clearly direct influence of the mysteries on early Christianity, but they shared a common environment and many non-Christians would have perceived Christians as members of an oriental Jewish mystery cult.56

    Given the sparse archaeological and literary evidence from this period regarding mystery cults in Roman Palestine, and the apparent resistance of many Palestinian Jews to religious syncretism, Chouraqui’s use of the noun adept implies a comparison between the historical Jesus and mystery cults that is doubtful, on both the levels of chronology and religious culture. Personally, I believe this choice suggests a vision of Jesus that distances him from the religious world of ancient Judaism, thus creating a distorted view of what spiritually inspired him. But the idea of the disciples as “learners” on a journey (as the Greek term suggests) is a striking one to consider; certainly, the Gospels show us the Twelve as people who are growing, learning, and developing…but who have not yet “arrived” at the fullness of their vocation.

Scot McKnight (in The Second Testament, publ. 2023) translates it into English as apprentice.

In Luang several terms with different shades of meaning are being used.

  • For Mark 2:23 and 3:7: maka nwatutu-nwaye’a re — “those that are taught” (“This is the term used for ‘disciples’ before the resurrection, while Jesus was still on earth teaching them.”)
  • For Acts 9:1 and 9:10: makpesiay — “those who believe.” (“This is the term used for believers and occasionally for the church, but also for referring to the disciples when tracking participants with a view to keeping them clear for the Luang readers. Although Greek has different terms for ‘believers’, ‘brothers’, and ‘church’, only one Luang word can be used in a given episode to avoid confusion. Using three different terms would imply three different sets of participants.”)
  • For Acts 6:1: mak lernohora Yesus wniatutunu-wniaye’eni — “those who follow Jesus’ teaching.” (“This is the term used for ‘disciples’ after Jesus returned to heaven.”)

Source: Kathy Taber in Notes on Translation 1/1999, p. 9-16.

In American Sign Language it is translated with a combination of the signs for “following” plus the sign for “group.” (Source: Ruth Anna Spooner, Ron Lawer)


“disciples” in American Sign Language, source: Deaf Harbor

In British Sign Language a sign is used that depicts a group of people following one person (the finger in the middle, signifying Jesus). Note that this sign is only used while Jesus is still physically present with his disciples. (Source: Anna Smith)


“Disciple in British Sign Language (source: Christian BSL, used with permission)

See also disciples (Japanese honorifics).

complete verse (John 3:5)

Following are a number of back-translations of John 3:5:

  • Ojitlán Chinantec: “. . . God cannot rule in the heart of a person if he has not been born another time.”
  • Huehuetla Tepehua: “The one who gives new life consists of water and of the Holy Spirit by the power of the Holy Spirit, he cannot go into where God reigns.”
  • Xicotepec De Juárez Totonac: ” . . . He who doesn’t receive water again, and he who isn’t born again by the power of the Holy Spirit, he cannot go into where God reigns.”
  • Tataltepec Chatino: “Jesus said, ‘It is true what I tell you. It is necessary that a person be baptized with water and the Holy Spirit give him a new life. Then that person will be in God’s hand.” (John 3:6 included) (Source: M. Larson / B. Moore in Notes on Translation February 1970, p. 1-125.)
  • Uma: “Yesus said: ‘These my words are very true: If a person is not born with water and with the power of the Spirit of God, he will not become a person of God in his Kingdom.” (Source: Uma Back Translation)
  • Yakan: “Isa answered, he said, ‘Truly I tell you, if a person is not born from water and from the Spirit of God, he cannot enter the ruling/kingdom of God.” (Source: Yakan Back Translation)
  • Western Bukidnon Manobo: “And Jesus said again, ‘It is true what I say to you that a person can be included among the people whom God rules over only if he is born by means of water and by means of the power of the Holy Spirit.” (Source: Western Bukidnon Manobo Back Translation)
  • Kankanaey: “‘This that I tell you (sing.) is true,’ answered Jesus. ‘If a person is not born by/with water and by/with the Holy Spirit, he can not join/belong-to the ruling of God.” (Source: Kankanaey Back Translation)
  • Tagbanwa: “Jesus replied, ‘This is the truth which I say to you. No one can be included in the kingdom of God unless he has been given birth to through/by water and the Espiritu Santo.” (Source: Tagbanwa Back Translation)
  • Tenango Otomi: “Jesus said, ‘It is true what I tell you. It is necessary that a person be baptized with water and that the Holy Spirit give him a new life. Then that person will be in God’s hand.” (Source: Tenango Otomi Back Translation)

complete verse (John 12:24)

Following are a number of back-translations of John 12:24:

  • Uma: “These my words are very true: I may be compared to rice. If rice is not planted in the ground and covered up like a dead-person, it just [will stay] the same. But if it is planted, its fruit will be much.” (Source: Uma Back Translation)
  • Yakan: “Truly I tell you, that one grain of seed remains just one grain as long as it is not put in the soil. But when it is put in the soil already, figuratively like it has died and is buried, na then it sprouts and has much fruit.” (Source: Yakan Back Translation)
  • Western Bukidnon Manobo: “It is very true what I say to you, that if a seed is not buried in the earth, it cannot have offspring. And if it is buried and it sprouts, it will bear much fruit. I am the same way because if I die, many will be given new life.” (Source: Western Bukidnon Manobo Back Translation)
  • Kankanaey: “Like what happens to a seed. Because this that I tell you is true that if a seed is not planted in order to thus rot and sprout, it will remain-unchanged only-one. But if it is planted and rots, then it will sprout and will bear-much -fruit.” (Source: Kankanaey Back Translation)
  • Tagbanwa: “This is the truth which I am saying to you, an illustration of me is, like planting-seed. As for planting-seed, when it’s planted it’s like it will die because it will rot, but that’s how it will become many. But if it isn’t planted, it’s only by itself.” (Source: Tagbanwa Back Translation)
  • Tenango Otomi: “Truly I tell you that it is necessary that I be killed in order that many will find the new life. It is like a seed of wheat which remains just one seed when it isn’t placed in the ground. But when it is placed in the ground, the seed grows and much wheat is gathered at harvest.” (Source: Tenango Otomi Back Translation)

    • Following are a number of back-translations of John 12:24:
    (In many languages it is necessary to avoid using the word ‘die’ because a dead seed will not grow.)

  • Ojitlán Chinantec: “Truly I tell you, if a grain of wheat is planted, the grain perishes when the plant comes up, but then many grains of wheat are produced. But the grain remains alone if it does not perish and come up as a plant. Also in that manner it is necessary that I die so that my people may multiply.”
  • Xicotepec De Juárez Totonac: “This is the truth. If a seed is going to give its fruit, it is necessary that it be buried in the earth. And when it is buried, first it appears as if it were destroyed, but later it will give its fruit. And thus also it will happen to me when I am buried. ” (Source for this and one above: John Beekman in Notes on Translation 12, November 1964, p. 1ff.)

Note: “In many languages it is necessary to avoid using the word ‘die’ because a dead seed will not grow.” (Source: John Beekman)

complete verse (John 3:6)

Following are a number of back-translations of John 3:6:

  • Umiray Dumaget Agta: “That which originates from the body of a person is the body of a person. That which originates from the Spirit of God is spirit.”
  • Aguaruna: “Those born from people are people. Those born by God’s spirit, they have God’s spirit.”
  • Ojitlán Chinantec: “All the children of human beings are human beings by birth. All who are born another time, this being the work of the Holy Spirit, these are new people.”
  • Xicotepec De Juárez Totonac: “One who is a child of people, he has his flesh and bones. And one who has his new life by the power of the Holy Spirit, he has the Spirit of God.”
  • Chol: “He who is born of a mother is given a body. He who is born of the spirit is given life in his heart.”
  • Alekano: “One that people give birth to will surely have a person’s soul. One that the Spirit gives birth to, he will surely have the Spirit’s soul.”
  • Tenango Otomi: “A child, when it is born, if his parents are only people, is also only a person. But in order for a person to live anew, only the Holy Spirit can cause it.”
  • Lalana Chinantec: “People’s flesh and blood causes our flesh and blood to be alive when we are born. But the great Spirit of God causes our hearts to be alive.” (Source for this and above: M. Larson / B. Moore in Notes on Translation February 1970, p. 1-125.)
  • Uma: “Man lives in this world, and is born from his parents. But the new life of his soul he receives from the Holy Spirit.” (Source: Uma Back Translation)
  • Yakan: “What is born of mankind is mankind/human. But if a person is born again from the Spirit of God, he is made a child of God.” (Source: Yakan Back Translation)
  • Western Bukidnon Manobo: “That which is born by means of a human is only human also, but that which is born by means of the power of the Holy Spirit, the Holy Spirit lives in him.” (Source: Western Bukidnon Manobo Back Translation)
  • Kankanaey: “Because the one to whom a person gives-birth, he is humanlike (connotes limited, sinful humanity), but the one by-contrast to whom the Holy Spirit gives-birth, he is spiritual (loan naispiritoan).” (Source: Kankanaey Back Translation)
  • Tagbanwa: “Because the one given birth to by a human, he is indeed human, a slave yet to sin. But that one who has been given birth to again, for he has been given birth to by the Espiritu Santo, he is now free from that slavery.” (Source: Tagbanwa Back Translation)
  • Tenango Otomi: “A child, when it is born and his parents are only people, is also only a person. But in order for a person to live anew, only the Holy Spirit is able to cause it.” (Source: Tenango Otomi Back Translation)

complete verse (John 12:43)

Following are a number of back-translations of John 12:43:

  • Ojitlán Chinantec: “For greater was their desire for the greatness among men than for God to make them great.”
  • Aguaruna: “They thought more about what people said, ignoring what God said.”
  • Shipibo-Conibo: “They wanted only a little for God to praise them. They really wanted people to praise them.” (Source for this and above: M. Larson / B. Moore in Notes on Translation February 1970, p. 1-125.)
  • Uma: “Because their desire, they wanted to be praised by their fellow companions, they did not consider/pay attention to praise that is from God.” (Source: Uma Back Translation)
  • Yakan: “For they were yet happy when mankind/humans were pleased with them over when God was pleased with them.” (Source: Yakan Back Translation)
  • Western Bukidnon Manobo: “The reason they didn’t say anything is because they liked better people’s praise of them, not God’s praise of them.” (Source: Western Bukidnon Manobo Back Translation)
  • Kankanaey: “Because what they valued was their companions’ honoring/praising them more than God’s honoring/praising.” (Source: Kankanaey Back Translation)
  • Tagbanwa: “They still wanted their fellow men to be pleased with them, not indeed that God would be the one to be pleased with them.” (Source: Tagbanwa Back Translation)
  • Tenango Otomi: “They thought it better to have the people look favorably on them than to have God tell them, ‘It is good what you do.'” (Source: Tenango Otomi Back Translation)

complete verse (Mark 2:9)

Following are a number of back-translations of Mark 2:9:

  • Uma: “I, the Child of Mankind, I do have authority in the world to forgive sins. But if I say to this lame person: ‘Your (sing.) sins are forgiven,’ you do not know whether they are really forgiven or not. But if I say: ‘Get up, roll up your (sing.) mat, and walk,’ you will see whether it happens or not. So I will show you that I have authority to forgive sin.’ From there, he turned to that lame person,” (Source: Uma Back Translation)
  • Yakan: “Which is the easier, to say to this paralyzed person, ‘Your sins are forgiven,’ or ‘Get up, take your bed (lit. for-lying-on) and walk.'” (Source: Yakan Back Translation)
  • Western Bukidnon Manobo: “For which is easier to a mere person? Is it to forgive the sins of this paralyzed man or is it to heal him so that he can rise and pick up his hammock and walk?” (Source: Western Bukidnon Manobo Back Translation)
  • Kankanaey: “It is admittedly easier to say, ‘Your (sing.) sins will-be forgiven’ than ‘Get-up, pick-up that stretcher of yours (sing.) to walk.'” (Source: Kankanaey Back Translation)
  • Tagbanwa: “Which is easier to say to this person who is paralyzed? Is it, ‘Your sins have now been forgiven,’ or to say, ‘Stand, carry what you are lying on and go now’? Isn’t it so that they are the same in that only the supernatural-power of God can do it?” (Source: Tagbanwa Back Translation)
  • Michoacán Nahuatl: “Which is harder for me to do in order to show you that I can forgive sins? Is it harder for me to tell this man, I forgive your sins? Is it harder to tell this man, Get up . . .”
  • Ojitlán Chinantec: “Surely if I can make him get up, pick up his bed, and walk away with it, I can also forgive his sins.
  • Western Highland Chatino: “Who can know if I can truly forgive sins if I say to the sick man that I forgive his sins? But if I tell the sick man to get up, pick up his bed,and walk, immediately you know whether I have authority or not.” (Source for this and two above: B. Moore / G. Turner in Notes on Translation 1967, p. 1ff.)
  • Kim text for oral translation: “What is the easiest thing; it is that of saying to the paralysed: ‘Your sins have been forgiven’ or of saying ‘Get up, take your bed, go your going (go away)’?” (Source: Bayamy Tchande Awakde in The Bible Translator 2025, p. 23ff.)
  • English translation by Michael Pakaluk (2019): “Which is easier, to say to the paralyzed man, ‘Your sins are forgiven,’ or to say, ‘Get up, take your pallet, and walk’?”

complete verse (John 5:40)

Following are a number of back-translations of John 5:40:

  • Ojitlán Chinantec: “And you do not want to believe in me so that I might give you eternal life.”
  • Alekano: “But though you should come to me and have eternal life, you confusedly reject me.”
  • Lalana Chinantec: “Even though the word of God speaks about me, you are not willing to become my people. If you became my people, you would come to life.” (Source for this and above: M. Larson / B. Moore in Notes on Translation February 1970, p. 1-125.)
  • Uma: “But even so, you still do not want to come to me, in order to receive that good life.” (Source: Uma Back Translation)
  • Yakan: “But you do not want to follow me and-what’s-more I can give you life without end.'” (Source: Yakan Back Translation)
  • Western Bukidnon Manobo: “I would that you would believe because you would be given eternal life.” (Source: Western Bukidnon Manobo Back Translation)
  • Kankanaey: “and you still refuse to be-joined-to me so that I would give you life.” (Source: Kankanaey Back Translation)
  • Tagbanwa: “But well, you just don’t want to follow/obey me so that I might give you life which has no ending.” (Source: Tagbanwa Back Translation)
  • Tenango Otomi: “And you do not want to believe in me to have the new life.'” (Source: Tenango Otomi Back Translation)

complete verse (John 14:2)

Following are a number of back-translations of John 14:2:

  • Ojitlán Chinantec: “In my Father’s house are many rooms for people to live in. If there were not many rooms, I would not have told you there were many. But there are, so I am going to get them arranged for you to live in.”
  • Huehuetla Tepehua: “There where my Father is are many houses. If it wasn’t like that up in heaven, I would have told you that it wasn’t like that. I am going to fix up the houses that are going to be yours.”
  • Aguaruna: “There is a lot of free space, able to be lived in, in my Father’s place. If that were not true I would not have told you it was! I am going in order to prepare your staying place.”
  • Tsafiki: “Where my Father God lives are many houses to live in. It’s true. I’m not one who lies!”
  • Navajo (Dinė): “Where my Father’s home is there are many houses. If it were not that way, would I have told you that it was? I am going there in order to prepare a place for you.”
  • Yatzachi Zapotec: “Where my Father God is like a large house with many rooms. I would have told you if there were not rooms for you. And now I will return to prepare rooms for each of you.” (Source for this and above: M. Larson / B. Moore in Notes on Translation February 1970, p. 1-125.)
  • Uma: “In my Father’s house, there are many dwelling-places. I go to prepare your dwelling-places for you. If it were not like that, I would have told you.” (Source: Uma Back Translation)
  • Yakan: “There in the place of my Father God, there are many dwellings. If this were not true I would not tell you this. I am going to prepare your dwellings.” (Source: Yakan Back Translation)
  • Western Bukidnon Manobo: “There are many places which can be lived in where my Father lives. For if this were not true I would not have said to you a while ago that I go to prepare a place for you to live in.” (Source: Western Bukidnon Manobo Back Translation)
  • Kankanaey: “Because there are many dwelling-places for people -where my Father -is-staying in heaven, and I am going there to go prepare your dwelling-place. If this that I tell you were not true, would I tell it?” (Source: Kankanaey Back Translation)
  • Tagbanwa: “In heaven where my Father lives, it’s a dwelling-place with lots of room. This is really true, and I’m going ahead now to do what will cause you to be able to live there. If it’s not true, of course I wouldn’t say it to you.” (Source: Tagbanwa Back Translation)
  • Tenango Otomi: “There at my Father’s house there are many places to stay. If there weren’t resting places, I wouldn’t have told you this. But now I am going to prepare a place for you.” (Source: Tenango Otomi Back Translation)