רְאֵ֨ה יְהוָ֤ה כִּֽי־צַר־לִי֙ מֵעַ֣י חֳמַרְמָ֔רוּ נֶהְפַּ֤ךְ לִבִּי֙ בְּקִרְבִּ֔י כִּ֥י מָר֖וֹ מָרִ֑יתִי מִח֥וּץ שִׁכְּלָה־חֶ֖רֶב בַּבַּ֥יִת כַּמָּֽוֶת׃ ס
20Look, O Lord, at how distressed I am;
my stomach churns;
my heart is wrung within me
because I have been very rebellious.
In the street the sword bereaves;
in the house it is like death.
In Gbaya, the notion of numerous (“in the street the sword bereaves”) in Lamentations 1:20 is emphasized with ŋgoɗoso, an ideophone that designates things that are numerous, in clusters, in bundles.
Ideophones are a class of sound symbolic words expressing human sensation that are used as literary devices in many African languages. (Source: Philip Noss)
See also lying on the ground in the streets
The Hebrew text of Lamentations 1-4 uses acrostics, a literary form in which each verse is started with one of the successive 22 letters of the Hebrew alphabet. According to Brenda Boerger (in Open Theology 2016, p. 179ff. ) there are three different reasons for acrostics in the Hebrew text: “for ease of memorization,” the representation “of the full breadth and depth of a topic, all the way from aleph to taw (tav),” and the perception of “the acrostic form as aesthetically attractive.” (p. 191)
While most translations mention the existence of an acrostic in a note or a comment, few implement it in their translation. One such exception is the Danish Bibelen på Hverdagsdansk (publ. 1985, rev. 2015 et al.).
1 Ak ja, den travle by er nu folketom.
Den storslåede by sidder tilbage som en fattig enke.
Dronningen blandt byer blev degraderet til tjenestepige.
2 Byen jamrer og græder natten lang.
Ingen kommer for at trøste hende i sorgen.
Alle de gamle venner har svigtet hende.
3 Det judæiske folk blev mishandlet og ført bort som slaver.
De vansmægter nu i det fremmede uden at finde hvile.
De kunne ikke undslippe, da fjenden oversvømmede byen.
4 Efter at templet blev ødelagt, er det forbi med højtid og fest.
Vejene op til Jerusalem er øde, og byens gader tomme.
Præsterne sørger, pigerne græder, hele byen er fortvivlet.
5 Fjenderne gik af med sejren og plyndrede byen.
Det var Herrens straf for al folkets ulydighed.
Alle byens indbyggere blev ført bort som slaver.
6 Glansen er fuldstændig gået af den før så herlige by.
Byens ledere var udhungrede som hjorte, der forgæves leder efter føde.
De var for udmattede til at undslippe deres forfølgere.
7 Hjemløs og fattig sidder Jerusalem og mindes de skatte, hun har mistet.
Ingen af hendes venner kom hende til hjælp mod fjendens angreb.
Hun blev hånet og spottet af den overlegne fjende.
8 Ingen vil længere se op til Jerusalem, som de gjorde engang.
Hun blev ydmyget og plyndret på grund af sine mange synder.
Nu sidder hun og jamrer, afklædt og skamfuld.
9 Jerusalem var utro mod Herren uden at tænke på følgerne.
Hun fik en frygtelig straf, og der er ingen, der trøster hende.
„Se min elendighed!” råber hun til Herren. „Min fjende foragter mig!”
10 Katastrofen er ikke til at bære, for alt er tabt.
Ikke alene blev alle byens værdier plyndret,
men fremmede folkeslag brød ind i templet og vanhelligede det.
11 Lidelsen ramte alle, som boede i byen.
Hungersnøden tvang dem til at sælge deres sidste ejendele for lidt mad.
Byen råber i sin nød: „Ak, Herre, se dog, hvor foragtet jeg er!
12 Mon der findes en større smerte end min?
Hvad mener I, der står og ser på min ulykke?
Det er jo Herren selv, der har sendt sin straf.
13 Nettet blev kastet ud over mig, og han fangede mig i fælden.
Dommen kom ned fra himlen som en fortærende ild.
Ensom og forladt sidder jeg her i min stadige pine.
14 Om halsen på mig ligger en byrde, som tynger mig til jorden.
Alle mine synder har han lagt som et åg på mine skuldre.
Jeg kunne intet gøre mod de mægtige fjender, han sendte.
15 På slagmarken ligger mine døde, tapre krigere.
Han sendte en mægtig hær mod mine unge soldater.
Han trampede på os, som man tramper druer i vinpersen.
16 Resultatet er en stadig strøm af tårer.
Der er ingen til at trøste og hjælpe mig.
Alt er håbløst, for fjenden har besejret os totalt.”
17 Selv om byen beder om nåde, er der ingen trøst at hente.
Det var Herren, der befalede nabofolkene at gå imod Israel.
De ser nu på Jerusalem som det værste skidt.
18 „Trods mine lidelser,” siger Jerusalem, „ved jeg, at Herrens dom var retfærdig,
for vi gjorde oprør imod alle hans befalinger.
Forstå min smerte, alle I folkeslag: Mine indbyggere er ført bort som slaver.
19 Uanset mit råb om hjælp blev jeg svigtet af mine nærmeste venner.
Mine præster og ledere bukkede under for hungersnøden,
forgæves søgte de efter mad nok til at overleve.
20 Vær mig nådig, Herre, for jeg erkender min synd.
De, der vovede sig ud på gaden, blev dræbt af sværdet,
men de, der blev inde i husene, bukkede under for sulten.
21 Ynkelige suk er alt, hvad jeg kan ytre, og der kommer ingen for at trøste mig.
Mine fjender fryder sig over den dom, du har afsagt over mig.
Gid du snart vil fælde dom over dem, ligesom du dømte mig.
22 Åh, Herre, glem ikke al deres ondskab!
Straf dem, som du har straffet mig!
Mit hjerte er fuldt af sorg, og jeg sukker konstant.”
Copyright © 1985, 1992, 2005, 2013, 2015 by Biblica, Inc.®
The English Bible translation by Ronald Knox (publ. 1950) maintains most Hebrew acrostics (even though Knox’s translation itself is based on the Latin text of the Vulgate rather than the Hebrew):
1 Alone she dwells, the city erewhile so populous; a widow now, once a queen among the nations; tributary now, that once had provinces at her command.
2 Be sure she weeps; there in the darkness her cheeks are wet with tears; of all that courted her, none left to console her, all those lovers grown weary of her, and turned into enemies.
3 Cruel the suffering and the bondage of Juda’s exile; that she must needs dwell among the heathen! Nor respite can she find; close at her heels the pursuit, and peril on either hand.
4 Desolate, the streets of Sion; no flocking, now, to the assembly; the gateways lie deserted. Sighs priest, and the maidens go in mourning, so bitter the grief that hangs over all.
5 Exultant, now, her invaders; with her enemies nothing goes amiss. For her many sins, the Lord has brought doom on her, and all her children have gone into exile, driven before the oppressor.
6 Fled is her beauty, the Sion that was once so fair; her chieftains have yielded their ground before the pursuer, strengthless as rams that can find no pasture.
7 Grievous the memories she holds, of the hour when all her ancient glories passed from her, when her people fell defenceless before the invader, unresisting before an enemy that derided them.
8 Heinously Jerusalem sinned; what wonder if she became an outlaw? How they fell to despising her when they saw her shame, that once flattered her! Deeply she sighed, and turned away her head.
9 Ill might skirts of her robe the defilement conceal; alas, so reckless of her doom, alas, fallen so low, with none to comfort her! Mark it well, Lord; see how humbled I, how exultant my adversary!
10 Jealous hands were laid on all she treasured; so it was that she must see Gentiles profane her sanctuary, Gentiles, by thy ordinance from the assembly debarred.
11 Kindred was none but went sighing for lack of bread, offered its precious heirlooms for food to revive men’s hearts. Mark it well, Lord, and see my pride abased!
12 Look well, you that pass by, and say if there was ever grief like this grief of mine; never a grape on the vineyard left to glean, when the Lord’s threat of vengeance is fulfilled.
13 Must fire from heaven waste my whole being, ere I can learn my lesson? Must he catch me in a net, to drag me back from my course? Desolate he leaves me, to pine away all the day long with grief.
14 No respite it gives me, the yoke of guilt I bear, by his hand fastened down upon my neck; see, I faint under it! The Lord has given me up a prisoner to duress there is no escaping.
15 Of all I had, the Lord has taken away the noblest; lost to me, all the flower of my chivalry, under his strict audit; Sion, poor maid, here was a wine-press well trodden down!
16 Pray you, should I not weep? Fountains these eyes are, that needs must flow; comforter is none at hand, that should revive my spirits. Lost to me, all those sons of mine, outmatched by their enemy.
17 Quest for consolation is vain, let her plead where she will; neighbours of Jacob, so the Lord decrees, are Jacob’s enemies, and all around they shrink from her, as from a thing unclean.
18 Right the Lord has in his quarrel; I have set his commands at defiance. O world, take warning; see what pangs I suffer, all my folk gone into exile, both man and maid.
19 So false the friends that were once my suitors! And now the city lacks priests and elders both, that went begging their bread, to revive the heart in them.
20 Take note, Lord, of my anguish, how my bosom burns, and my heart melts within me, in bitter ruth. And all the while, sword threatens without, and death not less cruel within.
21 Uncomforted my sorrow, but not unheard; my enemies hear it, and rejoice that my miseries are of thy contriving. Ah, but when thy promise comes true, they shall feel my pangs!
22 Vintager who didst leave my boughs so bare, for my much offending, mark well their cruelty, and strip these too in their turn; here be sighs a many, and a sad heart to claim it. (Source )
Spanish has a different tradition of acrostics. It uses non-alphabetic acrostics where the first letters of each line (or verse) together form a word or phrase. In the Traducción en lenguaje actual (publ. 2002, 2004), the translators used the first letters of this chapter of Lamentation to spell out “POBRECITA DE TI, JERUSALEN” (“Poor you, little Jerusalem”) which also is the first line of this chapter of Lamentations (for more on the translation process of this, see Alfredo Tepox in The Bible Translator 2004, p. 233ff. ).
1 ¡Pobrecita de ti, Jerusalén!
Antes eras la más famosa
de todas las ciudades.
¡Antes estabas llena de gente,
pero te has quedado muy sola,
te has quedado viuda!
¡Fuiste la reina de las naciones,
pero hoy eres esclava de ellas!
2 Olvidada y bañada en lágrimas
pasas todas las noches.
Muchos decían que te amaban,
pero hoy nadie te consuela.
Los que se decían tus amigos
hoy son tus enemigos.
3 Bajo el peso de las cadenas,
la gente de Judá salió prisionera.
Sus enemigos los atraparon
y los maltrataron con crueldad.
Ahora son esclavos en países lejanos,
y no han dejado de sufrir.
4 Ruido ya no se escucha
en tus portones, Jerusalén.
¡Qué triste es ver
tus calles desiertas!
Los sacerdotes lloran
y las jóvenes se afligen.
Todo en ti es amargura;
ya nadie viene a tus fiestas.
5 Es tanto tu pecado,
que Dios te castigó.
El enemigo se llevó prisioneros
a todos tus habitantes.
Ahora el enemigo te domina
y vive feliz y contento.
6 ¡Cómo has perdido, Jerusalén,
la belleza que tuviste!
Tus jefes, ya sin fuerzas,
huyen de quienes los persiguen.
¡Hasta parecen venados hambrientos
en busca de pastos frescos!
7 Insistes en recordar
que alguna vez fuiste rica.
Ahora vives en la tristeza
y no tienes a dónde ir.
Cuando el enemigo te conquistó,
no hubo nadie que te ayudara.
Cuando el enemigo te vio vencida,
se burló de verte en desgracia.
8 Tanto has pecado, Jerusalén,
que todos te desprecian.
Los que antes te admiraban
hoy se burlan al verte en desgracia.
¡Ahora derramas lágrimas,
y avergonzada escondes la cara!
9 ¡Asombrosa ha sido tu caída!
¡No hay nadie que te consuele!
Jamás pensaste en llegar a ser
tan despreciada,
y ahora exclamas:
«Mis enemigos me vencieron.
¡Mira, Dios mío, mi aflicción!»
10 Dueño de todas tus riquezas
es ahora tu enemigo.
Tú misma viste entrar en el templo
gente de otros pueblos,
aunque Dios había ordenado
que no debían entrar allí.
11 El pueblo entero llora
y anda en busca de pan.
Con tal de seguir con vida,
cambian sus riquezas por comida.
Llorando le dicen a Dios:
«¡Mira cómo nos humillan!»
12 Todos ustedes, que pasan y me ven,
¿por qué gozan al verme sufrir?
¿Dónde han visto a alguien
que sufra tanto como yo?
Cuando Dios se enojó conmigo,
me mandó este sufrimiento.
13 Intensa lluvia de fuego
ha enviado Dios sobre mí.
Mis huesos se han quemado,
y siento que me muero.
Dios me cerró el paso,
y me hizo retroceder.
Me dejó en el abandono;
mi sufrimiento no tiene fin.
14 Juntó Dios todos mis pecados
y me los ató al cuello.
Ya no me quedan fuerzas;
ya no los soporto más.
Dios me entregó al enemigo,
y no puedo defenderme.
15 En mis calles hay muchos muertos.
¡Dios rechazó a mis valientes!
Juntó un ejército para atacarme,
y acabó con todos mis jóvenes.
Dios me aplastó por completo;
¡me exprimió como a las uvas!
16 Ruedan por mis mejillas
lágrimas que no puedo contener.
Cerca de mí no hay nadie
que me consuele y me reanime.
Mi gente no puede creer
que el enemigo nos haya vencido.
El profeta
17 Un montón de escombros
es ahora Jerusalén.
Suplicante pide ayuda,
pero nadie la consuela.
Dios mismo ordenó
que sus vecinos la atacaran.
Jerusalén
18 Siempre Dios hace lo justo,
pero yo soy muy rebelde.
¡Escuchen, naciones todas!
¡Miren cómo sufro!
¡El enemigo se llevó prisioneros
a todos mis habitantes!
19 Ayuda pedí a mis amigos,
pero me dieron la espalda.
Los jefes y sacerdotes
acabaron perdiendo la vida.
Andaban buscando comida,
y no pudieron sobrevivir.
20 ¡La muerte me quitó a mis hijos
dentro y fuera de la ciudad!
¡Mira mi angustia, Dios mío!
¡Siento que me muero!
¡Tan rebelde he sido contigo
que estoy totalmente confundida!
21 El enemigo no esconde su alegría
porque tú, Dios mío, me haces sufrir.
Todo el mundo escucha mi llanto,
pero nadie me consuela.
¡Ya es tiempo de que los castigues
como me castigaste a mí!
22 No hay un solo pecado
que ellos no hayan cometido;
¡castiga entonces su rebeldía,
como me castigaste a mí!
¡Ya es mucho lo que he llorado,
y siento que me muero!
Traducción en lenguaje actual ® © Sociedades Bíblicas Unidas, 2002, 2004.
Following are a number of back-translations as well as a sample translation for translators of Lamentations 1:20:
The translation of the tetragrammaton (YHWH or יהוה) is easily the most often discussed issue in Bible translation. This is exemplified by the fact that there is virtually no translation of the Bible — regardless of language — where the position of the respective translator or translation team on how to translate the name of God into the respective language is not clearly stated in the preface or introduction.
The literature on this topic is overwhelming, both as far as the meaning of YHWH and the translation of it by itself and in combination with other terms (including Elohim and Adonai). There is no reason or room to rehash those discussions. Aside from various insightful translations of YHWH into various languages (see below), what’s of interest in the context of this tool are official and semi-official statements regarding the translation by Bible translation agencies and churches. These include the 1992 statement by United Bible Societies’ “Names of God” Study Group (see The Bible Translator 1992, p. 403-407 ) or the “Letter to the Bishops’ Conference on ‘The Name of God'” by the Congregatio de Cultu Divino et Discriplina Sacramentorum of 2008 (see here et al.).
In summary, the UBS study group gives six different options on how to translate YHWH: 1) transliterate (some form of “Yahweh” or “Jehovah” if this is an already established term); 2) translate (along the lines of kurios — κύριος in the Septuagint); 3) translate the meaning of YHWH; 4) use a culture-specific name; 5) translate Elohim and YHWH in the same way; or 6) use a combination of any of these options.
The official Catholic directive states that for liturgical purposes YHWH is to be translated as an equivalent of Kurios (“Lord”) unless when appearing in combination with Elohim (“God”) or Adonai (“lord”), in which case it’s to be translated with “God.”
In the following collection of examples, any of the above-mentioned strategies are used.
Use of Typographical Means to Offset the Name of God
A large number of Bible translations in many Western European languages have used a similar strategy to translate YHWH as an equivalent of Kurios or Adonai (“lord” in Greek in Hebrew) but have used either small caps or all caps to denote these occurrences as an equivalent to a proper name. Here are some examples:
None of the European languages have found a “cultural-linguistic equivalent” with the possible exception of Eternal or l’Éternel (see below).
The rendering of the translation of YHWH in bold (and uppercase) characters is for instance used in Guhu-Samane: QOBEROBA (a term of address for a respected person and also connotes “forever”) (for “forever”, see below under Translations of the Name of God) and the upper-casing in Bible translations in several other languages in Papua New Guinea:
In Cebuano (Ang Pulong sa Dios edition, 2010) and Hiligaynon (all versions), Ginoo, a typographical variant of Ginoo (“Lord”) is used. Bible translation consultant Kermit Titrud (SIL): “‘Yahweh’ is too close to Yahwa, their word for ‘Satan.’ We were afraid that in the pulpits readers might misread ‘Yahweh’ and say ‘Yahwa.’ So we went with the tradition found in most English translations. Ginoo for ‘Yahweh’ and Ginoo for ‘adonai.'”
In languages where capitalization is not a typographical option, other options are available and used, such as in Japanese, where the generic term shu 主 for “Lord” is bolded in some translations to offset its meaning (Source: Omanson, p. 17).
In Pattani Malay, the word for “Lord” is underlined: ربي. (Source: Andy Warren-Rothlin)
A graphical way of representation beyond typography was used by André Chouraqui in his French La Bible hebraique et le Nouveau Testament (publ. 1974-1977) for which he superimposed adonai and Elohim over (the French rendition) of the tetragrammaton:
(Source: Andy Warren-Rothlin in Noss / Houser, p. 618ff.; see also tempt God / put God to the test)
Translations of the Name of God
A translation of YHWH with a rendering of the meaning of “Eternal” was done in English by James Moffatt (between 1926 and 1935) with Eternal, The Voice translation with Eternal One (2012), in French versions as L’ÉTERNEL by J. F. Ostervald in 1904 or l’Éternel by L. Segond (1910-1938, not in more recent revisions) and Zadoc Kahn (1964) (for the French translation, see also LORD of hosts), in Esperanto as “la Eternulo,” and in Obolo as Okumugwem: “The Ever-Living” (source: Enene Enene). In francophone Africa, translations of l’Éternel are widely used, due to the wide use of Segond’s early editions (see above). Examples include Nancere (Nandjéré) with Kumuekerteri, Ngambay (Ngambaï) with Njesigənea̰, Sar with Kɔ́ɔ̄ɓē, Mbay (Mbaï) with Bïraþe, Kim with Bage ɗiŋnedin, or Lélé uses Gojɛnɛkirɛkindiy (verbatim: “who remains for his eyes”). (Source: Andy Warren-Rothlin)
Similarly and at the same time expanding its meaning, the Nzima translation of 1998 translated YHWH as Ɛdεnkεma, the “Eternal All-Powerful Creator and Sustainer” (Source: David Ekem in The Bible Translator 2005, p. 72ff. ).
“Creator” is also used in Kazakh (Zharatkhan [Жаратқан]), Karakalpak (Zharatkhan [Жаратқан], sometimes in combination with Iyeg [Ийег] — “Master”), and Kirghiz (Zharatkhan [Жаратқан], likewise in combination with “Master” or Ege [Эге]). (Source: David Gray).
Nepali, Bengali, and Hindi are all derived from Sanskrit and have (eventually) all found similar translations of YHWH. In Bengali “God” is translated as Ishwar (ঈশ্বর) (widely used in Hindu scriptures, where it’s used as a title, usually associated with “Siva”) and YHWH as Shodaphrobhu (সদাপ্রভু) — “Eternal Lord”; in Nepali and Newari YHWH is translated as Paramaprabhu (परमप्रभु)– “Supreme Lord”; and Hindi translates YHWH as Phrabu (प्रभु) — “Lord.” In earlier translations all three languages used transliterations of Jehovah or Yahweh. (Source: B. Rai in The Bible Translator 1992, p. 443ff. and Barrick, p. 124).
“The name ‘Jehovah’ had been used in some contexts, but I had the feeling that it did not mean much to the people, and when I asked the pastors they all said it didn’t, and worse, it very often confused people, especially in the villages. During the conversation it was suggested that the name Chinawej be used in the place of ‘Jehovah’, and this met with immediate approval. A few days later I was working on a Psalm in which ‘Jehovah’ was used frequently, so I wrote Chinawej in its place and then read the Psalm to them. The response was about like this: “That is it, now people will understand, that is how Chinawej is. The Jews call God ‘Jehovah’, we call Him Chinawej, it is the same God. but we know Him as Chinawej as the Jews know Him as ‘Jehovah’ “. They often call God Chinawej in prayer, it seems to indicate warmth and intimacy.
The same word is used in two other ways. It is the name of a snake which never attacks human beings. And it is used as a response of approval. When told of something they are pleased to hear, something they find good, just, helpful, generous, they often respond by saying, Chinawej. When they call God Chinawej, it indicates that they think of Him as One Who is good and just and generous towards them. When it was suggested at the committee that we use Chinawej in place of ‘Jehovah’ it was accepted immediately and unanimously.
Jim Zvara (2019, p. 6) explains: “The Uzbek term ega means owner or master (‘master,’ in the historical context of an owner-slave relationship). By extension, it is natural for an Uzbek to speak to or refer to God as Egam (‘my owner’/’master’). In the Uzbek context to be God’s slave is a positive way of understanding one’s relation to him. It suggests that one is in a dependent and obedient relationship to God. The team felt that this relational connection and what it implies fits well with the concept of YHWH as the God who is in a covenant relationship with his people. In the Uzbek context, the choice of Ega was deemed to be the best balance of natural language with meaningful translation.”
“(…) The Seediq team requested that we spend time with them on key terms. They had compiled a list of key terms that they wanted input on, and we went through the list item by item. The most important item was how to deal with the divine name. They had tentatively translated it as Yehoba, transliterated from Jehovah, but they were also aware that this transliteration may not be accurate, and they were keen to explore other options.
“We explored various alternatives. Were they interested in following the ancient Jewish practice of substituting ‘Lord’ for the divine name? Would capitalising the letters help? Would they be bold enough to use ‘Yahweh,’ following the opinion of most Old Testament scholars who regard this as the correct pronunciation? Was it feasible to adopt a mixed approach in dealing with the divine name (…)? Each option had its advantages as well as disadvantages.
“In the midst of the discussion, a participant said, ‘Our ancestors, as well as we today, always call God by the term Utux Tmninun. I suggest we use this term.’ The term Utux Tmninun in the Seediq culture means ‘the weaving God.’ In their culture, God is the weaver, the one who weaves life together. All the participants were excited about this proposal. They tried this term with all the composite terms that involve the divine name, and it seemed to work well, so they decided tentatively to adopt this term. After the workshop, the participants went back to their villages and sought feedback from the wider community, and eventually they confirmed the use of the term Utux Tmninun as the rendering of the divine name.
Translating the divine name as Utux Tmninun, the weaving God, is a creative solution. This term is viewed very positively in the Seediq community. It also correlates well with the concept of God as the creator (Gen. 1-2) and as the weaver who formed our inward parts and knit us together in our mothers’ wombs (Ps. 139:13). It also has the advantage of portraying God beyond the traditional masculine form.
“Some may argue that since names are usually transliterated, we should do the same with YHWH, most likely pronounced ‘Yahweh.’ Unfortunately, due to the influence of Chinese Union Version for almost one hundred years now, Chinese Christians only know God as Yehehua. Attempts to change the term Yehehua to Yahweh have not been successful. This is a reality that the Seediq Christians have to live with.
“Others may argue on theological grounds that YHWH is not only the creator, but also the God of the covenant, hence any attempt to substitute another term for YHWH will not do justice to the Hebrew text. In the case of the Seediq translation, there are significant similarities between Utux Tmninun and YHWH, though the terms are not identical. This is a reality translators often have to struggle with. Exact correspondence is hard to come by. Often it is a matter of approximation, give and take. Besides theological considerations, one has to deal with the constraints of past traditions (‘Jehovah,’ in this instance), the biblical cultures and one’s own culture, and audience acceptance. Hopefully, by using Utux Tmninun for YHWH, the Seediq term will be transformed and take on the aspect of the covenant God as well.” (Source: Yu Suee Yan, The Bible Translator 2015, p. 316ff. )
“The name Chauta, literally ‘Great-One-of-the-Bow’, i.e. [is] either the rainbow (descriptively termed uta-wa-Leza ‘the-bow-of-God’) or, less likely, the hunter’s bow. And yet Chauta was also distinct from Mulungu [“God”] in that it has reference to the specific tribal deity of the Chewa people — the God who ‘owns’ yet also ‘belongs to’ them — and hence it carries additional positive emotive overtones. Although research indicated that in an ancient traditional setting, Chauta too was probably associated with the indigenous ancestral rain cult, in the Christian era it has been progressively generalized to encompass virtually all religious contexts in which God may be either appealed to, proclaimed, or praised. After prolonged deliberation, therefore, the translation committee determined Chauta to be the closest functional equivalent to YHWH of the Hebrew Scriptures. The choice of this name is not without its difficulties, however, and these were carefully considered by the Chewa committee. For example, the use of a more specific local term, as opposed to the generic Mulungu, carries a greater likelihood of bringing along with it certain senses, connotations, and situations that were (and no doubt still are) associated with the indigenous, pre-Christian system of worship. If these happened to remain strong in any contemporary sacred setting, then of course the dangers connected with conceptual syncretism might well arise. In the case of Chauta, however, it appeared that the process of positive Christian contextualization had already reached an advanced stage, that is, judging from the widespread use of this name in all aspects of religious life and practice. A more scholarly argument against Chauta takes the position that there is too great a female component associated with this term because it was traditionally applied (by figurative metonymy) to refer also to the ritual ‘wife of God’, i.e. the chief officiant at a traditional rain shrine and worship sanctuary. However, this usage seems to be quite remote, and most people questioned do not even recognize the connection anymore. Besides, in a matrilineal society such as the Chewa, it does not seem inappropriate to have this aspect of meaning lying in the background, particularly since it is not completely foreign to the notion of God in the Bible (cf. Ps. 36:7; 73:15; Isa. 49:14-15; Mt. 23:37). In terms of ‘connotative fit’ or emotive identification and appeal, there can be little doubt that the name Chauta is by far the closest natural equivalent to YHWH in the contemporary Chewa cultural and religious environment. This aspect of meaning was probably also utmost from the ancient Jewish perspective as well; in other words, “for them the associated meaning of this special name [YHWH], in terms of their history and culture, far outweighed any meaning it may have suggested because of its form or derivation”. To be sure, this ‘new’ divine name — that is, new as far as the Scriptures are concerned — may take some getting used to, especially in the formal setting of public worship. But this is not a foreign god whom we are talking about; rather, he is certainly by now regarded as the national deity of the Chewa nation. Chauta is the great God who for one reason or another ‘did not make himself known to them by his holy name, the LORD’ (Exod. 6:3), that is, in the prior translations of his Word into Chewa. He is, however, and always has been “a God who saves … the LORD (Chauta), our Lord, who rescues us from death” (Ps. 68:20, Good News Bible)!” (Source: Wendland 1998, 120f.; see also The Bible Translator 1992, 430ff. )
Transliteration of YHWH
A 12th century reading of the Masoretic vowel points around יהוה (יְהֹוָה) was interpreted to be pronounced as Yehowah from which Iehouah and Jehovah were derived. This was reflected in the English versions of Tyndale (publ. 1530) and the Geneva Bible (significantly based on Tyndale and publ. in 1560) and again the King James Version (Authorized Version) (publ. 1611) which all used Iehouah or Jehovah in 7 different verses in the Old Testament. The translators and editors of the American Standard Version (publ. 1901), a review of the King James Version used Jehovah for all appearances of the tetragrammaton something that the Spanish Reina-Valera (publ. 1602) had already done as well.
In English versions, Yahweh as a transliteration of the tetragrammaton is used by the Catholic Jerusalem Bible (publ. 1966), the Protestant Holman Christian Standard Bible (publ. 2004) and the Legacy Standard Bible (publ. 2021). The Catholic translation by Knox (publ. 1949) occasionally uses Javé, “to make it a Latin name, to match all the other names in the Old Testament.” (Source Knox 1949, p. 80)
Mandinka for instance uses Yawe for YHWH. “The use of Yawe for YHWH is good and may be a trendsetter in this part of Africa.” (Source: Rob Koops)
In a group of related languages in another part of Africa an interesting development from a transliteration to a indigenous translation can be shown: In the Nandi Bible (1938) Jehovah was used as a translation for YHWH. Kamuktaindet (“The Powerful One”) was used as a translation for Elohim (“God”). This was taken over by a translation into the macrolanguage Kalenjin (1969) (intended to include the closely related Keiyo, Kipsigis, Markweeta, Nandi, Okiek, Sabaot, Terik, and Tugen). Sabaot, Markweeta, Tugen and Okiek later wanted there own translations. Both Sabaot and Markweeta use the indigenous word for “Creator” (Yēyiin in Sabaot and Iriin in Markweeta) to translate Elohim and YHWH of the Old Testament and Theos of the New Testament. The Kalenjin Bible has recently been revised to cater to Keiyo, Kipsigis, Nandi and Terik, and this revision has completely dropped Jehovah in favour of Kamuktaindet. (Source: Iver Larsen)
Early translations into Gilbertese faced a problem when transliterating “Jehovah” (a form of “Jehovah” was first used in Spanish Bible translations in 1569 and 1602): “There are only thirteen letters in the Kiribati alphabet: A, E, I, O, U, M, N, NG, B, K, R, T (pronounced [s] when followed by ‘i’), W For instance, ‘Jehovah’ is rendered Iehova, but Kiribati speakers can only pronounce it as ‘Iowa,’ since the phonemes [h] and [v] do not exist in Kiribati.” (source: Joseph Hong, The Bible Translator 1994, p. 329ff. .)
Other transliterations include Yoba (Kovai), Iaue (Mussau-Emira), Jawe (Waskia), Iave (Maiadomu), Iawe (Waboda) (source: P. King, The Bible Translator 2014, p. 194ff. ), Yawi (Western Tawbuid, Eastern Tawbuid), or Yihowah (Kapingamarangi — this last example was chosen because it contains the characters YHWH and distinguishes itself from the Jehovah’s Witnesses’ Jiowa, also if the name is not specifically in focus, the Kapingamarangi translators use Dimaadua or “The Parents” as an honorary title and a translation of YHWH [source: Nico Damms in The Bible Translator 2008, p. 179ff. ]).
In a recent edition of a Thai translation (Thai Standard Version, publ. 2011) a combination of translation and transliteration is used: phra’ ya(h)we (h) (พระยาห์เวห์) (“Divine Yawe”). (Source: Stephen Pattemore)
In Nyarafolo Senoufo the transliteration is Yewe which also means “the being one” or “he that is.” David DeGraaf (in: Notes on Translation 3/1999, p. 34ff.) explains: “Since it is widely recognized that the vowels of the name are uncertain, another possible transliteration is Yewe. This proposal is in accord with the Nyarafolo rules of vowel harmony and is thus open to being understood as a normal nominalization in the language. Second, Yewe is exactly the word that would be formed by nominalizing the verb ‘to be’ in the class that includes sentient beings. Thus, Yewe can be understood as ‘the being one’ or ‘he that is’. This solution accords well with YHWH’s self-revelation to Moses in Exodus 3:14, ‘I am who I am.'”
“YHWH” is rendered in the Chinese Union Version — the most widely used Bible translation in China—as well as most other Chinese Bible translations as yehehua 耶和華. According to Chinese naming conventions, yehehua could be interpreted as Ye Hehua, in which Ye would be the family name and Hehua — “harmonic and radiant” — the given name. In the same manner, Ye would be the family name of Jesus (transliterated as yesu 耶穌) and Su would be the given name. Because in China the children inherit the family name from the father, the sonship of Jesus to God the Father, yehehua, would be illustrated through this. Though this line of argumentation sounds theologically unsound, it is indeed used effectively in the Chinese church.” (see Wright 1953, p. 298, see also Jesus).
“Ye 耶, an interrogative particle in classical Chinese, is part of the same phonetic series as ye 爺, which gives it a certain exchangeability. Ye 爺 carries the meaning “father” or is used as an honorable form of address. The choice of the first Bible translators to use the transliteration yehehua 爺火華 for Jehovah had a remarkable and sobering influence on the history of the 19th century in China by possibly helping to shape the fatal Taiping ideology, a rebellion that ended up costing an estimated 20 million lives.
“The founder of the Taiping rebellion, Hong Xiuquan, was given a tract (…) [that he used to] interpret a nervous breakdown he had had in 1837 as his “call” to be the “Messiah.” This “vision” that Hong experienced is likely to have had a direct correlation with the name of “God” in that tract. Shen yehuohua 神爺火華 (directly translated: ‘God (or: spirit); old man (or: father); fire; bright)” was the term that was used in that tract for ‘God Jehovah,’ but this was not indicated as a (in its second part) transliteration of a proper name. In his vision, Hong saw ‘a man venerable in years (corresponding with ye), with golden (corresponding with huo and hua) beard and dressed in a black robe,’ an image likely to have been inspired by a direct translation from that name for ‘God,’ especially as it appeared at the beginning of the tract. That this term was considered to be a term of some relevance to the Taiping ideology is demonstrated by the fact that both yehuohua 爺火華 as the personal name of God and ye 爺 as “God the Father” later appeared in Taiping writings.” (Source: Zetzsche in Malek 2002, p. 141ff.)
In American Sign Language it is translated with a sign that combines the letter Y and a sign that points up and is similar to the sign for “God.” (Source: Ruth Anna Spooner, Ron Lawer)
“YHWH” in American Sign Language, source: Deaf Harbor
In British Sign Language is is translated with a sign that combines the signs for “God” and “name” and the finger-spelling of Y-H-W-H. (Source: Anna Smith)
“YHWH” in British Sign Language (source: Christian BSL, used with permission)
Japanese Sign Language combines the sign for “Lord” with “exist” to make a name sign that technically means “the existent one,” but is close enough to “Lord” that it isn’t too jarring for people in the church who expect to see “Lord” in certain contexts (source: Mark Penner). For a Japanese Sign Language explanation, see here.
“YHWH” in Japanese Sign Language, source: 日本手話訳聖書を
For further reading on the translation of YHWH, see Rosin 1956, p. 89-125 and Andy Warren-Rothlin in Noss / Houser, p. 618ff.
See also Lord, God, and Exod. 3:14-15.
Like a number of other East Asian languages, Japanese uses a complex system of honorifics, i.e. a system where a number of different levels of politeness are expressed in language via words, word forms or grammatical constructs. These can range from addressing someone or referring to someone with contempt (very informal) to expressing the highest level of reference (as used in addressing or referring to God) or any number of levels in-between.
One way Japanese shows different degree of politeness is through the choice of a benefactive construction as shown here in the widely-used Japanese Shinkaiyaku (新改訳) Bible of 2017. Here, goran (ご覧) or “see/behold/look” (itself a combination of “behold/see” [ran] and the honorific prefix go- — see behold / look / see (Japanese honorifics)) is used in combination with kudasaru (くださる), a respectful form of the benefactive kureru (くれる). A benefactive reflects the good will of the giver or the gratitude of a recipient of the favor. To convey this connotation, English translation needs to employ a phrase such as “for me (my sake)” or “for you (your sake).”
(Source: S. E. Doi, see also S. E. Doi in Journal of Translation, 18/2022, p. 37ff. )
In verse 20 the first two half-lines are parallel in meaning. The second pair are related logically, and the final pair are again parallel in meaning.
Behold, O LORD, for I am in distress: Behold translates the Hebrew for “see” and is a plea for God to look, as Good News Translation translates. Distress translates a different word than the one used in verse 3, but the sense is the same: “agony, anguish, suffering, trouble.” In some languages distress is expressed idiomatically; for example, “trouble has seized me” or “bad has fallen on me.”
My soul is in tumult translates the Hebrew, which is literally “my intestines ferment.” A literal translation of the Hebrew into English would only suggest an upset bowel. This is a clear case in which the second half-line in Hebrew says in figurative language what the first half-line says literally. The literary effect is to increase the vividness of the unit. Translators may be able to follow the Hebrew pattern and employ a vivid metaphor in the second half-line. If not, the translator should not sacrifice meaning in an attempt to imitate the Hebrew.
My heart is wrung within me is literally “My heart is turned over within me.” A similar expression is found in Hosea 11.8. The sense is that the speaker experiences troubling sadness, or as Good News Translation says, “My heart is broken.”
Because I have been very rebellious gives the reason for the condition in the previous half-line. Rebellious translates the same root used in verse 18. See there for comments. In some languages the reason may have to be placed before the consequence; for example, “I have rebelled against God, and therefore my heart does not rest well within me.”
In the street the sword bereaves: In the street is literally “outdoors” as contrasted with “indoors.” The places are expressed as singular, but the sense is collective, that is, “everywhere outside,” and “inside the houses.” Bereaves translates a word in Hebrew that gives the sense that the sword takes someone away from loved ones by killing that person. Many translations take the loss to refer to the death of children. If the symbol of the sword is used in translation, we may sometimes say, for example, “Outside the enemy kills my children with the sword.” If the translator feels it is better to be general, as in Good News Translation “murder,” it may be possible to say, for example, “In the streets of Jerusalem the enemy is killing people” or “The enemy slaughters people out in the streets.” Translators should probably use a term for “killing” which is used for the killing of human beings during war.
In the house it is like death: in the house gives a particular location, whereas the contrasting “outside” can be almost anywhere. Like death suggests that indoors there is not really the experience of death, but only something like it. Various comments have been made by interpreters regarding this expression. AB alters the text to mean “inside, it was famine,” and so implies a similar situation to the one described in the first part of Jeremiah 14.18. Some scholars point out that in Hebrew a preposition is sometimes left out if it is preceded by the word meaning “like.” The word translated death can sometimes mean “the world of the dead,” namely “Sheol,” as in Psalm 6.5. Traduction œcuménique de la Bible, for example, treats the expression as a person by saying “Inside it is like in the house of Death.” New Jerusalem Bible, Moffatt (Moffatt), and Die Bibel im heutigen Deutsch interpret the expression to refer to the plague.
In translation it will often be necessary to reword like death as something which is more precise. Good News Translation “there is death” may have to be rendered, for example, “people are dying.” If it is necessary to give a reason for the dying in the houses, it may be possible to say “because they have no food to eat” or “because disease (or, the plague) has struck them down.”
Quoted with permission from Reyburn, William D. A Handbook on Lamentations. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 1992. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .
1:20a See, O LORD, how distressed I am!
Yahweh, see how much I suffer!
-or-
Look, Yahweh! We are in much trouble!
1:20b I am churning within;
I am distressed ⌊from pain and suffering⌋ .
-or-
We are upset ⌊very sad, confused and hopeless⌋ .
1:20c my heart is pounding within me,
My heart is broken/beating too fast. I am very sad,
-or-
Our thoughts are confused and we don’t know what to think or do.
-or-
We feel broken and devastated.
1:20d for I have been most rebellious.
because I have been so very disobedient.
-or-
⌊This is⌋ because we have ignored ⌊God’s commands⌋ and did what he/Yahweh had forbidden.
1:20e Outside, the sword bereaves;
There is murder in the streets,
-or-
The enemies kill us outside ⌊of our homes⌋ ,
1:20f inside, there is death.
even indoors there is death. (GNTD)
-or-
and inside we die ⌊of hunger and sickness⌋ .
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