The Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek, and Latin that is often translated as “gentiles” (or “nations”) in English is often translated as a “local equivalent of ‘foreigners,'” such as “the people of other lands” (Guerrero Amuzgo), “people of other towns” (Tzeltal), “people of other languages” (San Miguel El Grande Mixtec), “strange peoples” (Navajo (Dinė)) (this and above, see Bratcher / Nida), “outsiders” (Ekari), “people of foreign lands” (Kannada), “non-Jews” (North Alaskan Inupiatun), “people being-in-darkness” (a figurative expression for people lacking cultural or religious insight) (Toraja-Sa’dan) (source for this and three above Reiling / Swellengrebel), “from different places all people” (Martu Wangka) (source: Carl Gross).
Tzeltal translates it as “people in all different towns,” Chicahuaxtla Triqui as “the people who live all over the world,” Highland Totonac as “all the outsider people,” Sayula Popoluca as “(people) in every land” (source: Waterhouse / Parrott in Notes on Translation October 1967, p. 1ff.), Chichimeca-Jonaz as “foreign people who are not Jews,” Sierra de Juárez Zapotec as “people of other nations” (source of this and one above: Viola Waterhouse in Notes on Translation August 1966, p. 86ff.), Highland Totonac as “outsider people” (source: Waterhouse / Parrott in Notes on Translation October 1967, p. 1ff.), Uma as “people who are not the descendants of Israel” (source: Uma Back Translation), “other ethnic groups” (source: Newari Back Translation), and Yakan as “the other tribes” (source: Yakan Back Translation).
In Chichewa, it is translated with mitundu or “races.” (Source: Mawu a Mulungu mu Chichewa Chalero Back Translation)
Following are a number of back-translations as well as a sample translation for translators of Isaiah 41:2:
Kupsabiny: “Who is it that brings that victorious person from the East and prepares his work for him? Who is it that makes that man to defeat countries and put kings under him? That man destroys/scatters communities with his sword as if those communities were dust. His arrows scatter people to become like straw that the wind blows away.” (Source: Kupsabiny Back Translation)
Newari: “Who has stirred up someone from the east, calling him in righteousness to his service? He has brought the nations under his authority, and [he has] brought their kings under his power. With his sword he [has made] them like dust and with his bow and arrow he has caused them to fly away like chaff.” (Source: Newari Back Translation)
Hiligaynon: “Who called for a righteous victorious-one from the east so-that he will-serve him? Who hands-over the nations and kings to this victorious-one? He destroys them by-means of his sword and bow-and-arrow; they are like dust or chaff which is-blown-away by the wind.” (Source: Hiligaynon Back Translation)
The cardinal directions “east” and “west” are easy to translate into Maan here since the language uses “where the sun comes up” and “where the sun goes down.” For “north” the translator had “facing toward the sun rising to the left,” and for “south” she had “facing toward the sun rising to the right.” So the listener had to think hard before knowing what direction was in view when translating “to the north and south, to the east and west.” So, in case all four directions are mentioned, it was shortened by saying simply “all directions.” Manya uses a similar nomenclature for the cardinal directions. (Source: Don Slager)
Likewise, Yakan has “from the four corners of the earth” (source: Yakan back-translation) or Western Bukidnon Manobo “from the four directions here on the earth” (source: Western Bukidnon Manobo back-translation).
Kankanaey is “from the coming-out and the going-away of the sun and the north and the south” (source: Kankanaey back-translation), Northern Emberá “from where the sun comes up, from where it falls, from the looking [left] hand, from the real [right] hand” (source: Charles Mortensen), Amele “from the direction of the sun going up, from the direction of the sun going down, from the north and from the south” (source: John Roberts), Ejamat “look up to see the side where the sun comes from, and the side where it sets, and look on your right side, and on your left” (source: David Frank in this blog post ).
In Lamba, only umutulesuŵa, “where the sun rises” and imbonsi, “where the sun sets” were available as cardinal directions that were not tied to the local area of language speakers (“north” is kumausi — “to the Aushi country” — and “south” kumalenje — “to the Lenje country”). So “north” and “south” were introduced as loanwords, nofu and saufu respectively. The whole phrase is kunofu nakusaufu nakumutulesuŵa nakumbonsi. (Source C. M. Doke in The Bible Translator 1958, p. 57ff. )
“West” is translated in Tzeltal as “where the sun pours-out” and in Kele as “down-river” (source: Reiling / Swellengrebel).
In Morelos Nahuatl, “north” is translated as “from above” and “south” as “from below.” (Source: Viola Waterhouse in Notes on Translation August 1966, p. 86ff.)
In Matumbi cardinal directions are defined as in relation to another place. “East” for instance typically is “toward the beach” since the coast is in the eastern direction in Matumbi-speaking areas. “North” and “south” can be defined as above or below another place. (Source: Pioneer Bible Translators, project-specific notes in Paratext)
The Hebrew text that gives instructions where to place items in the tabernacle with the help of cardinal directions (north and south) had to be approached in the Bambam translation specific to spacial concepts of that culture.
Phil Campbell explains: “There are no words in Bambam for north and south. In Exodus 26:35, God instructs that the table is to be placed on the north side and the lamp on the south side inside the tabernacle. The team wants to use right and left to tell where the lamp and table are located. In many languages we would say that the table is on the right and the lampstand is on the left based on the view of someone entering the tabernacle. However, that is not how Bambam people view it. They view the placement of things and rooms in a building according to the orientation of someone standing inside the building facing the front of the building. So that means the table is on the left side and the lampstand is on the right side.”
Following are a number of back-translations as well as a sample translation for translators of Isaiah 4:12:
English: “They have big parties and provide lots of wine. At their parties, there are people playing harps and lyres and tambourines and flutes, but they never think about what Yahweh does or appreciate what he has created.” (Source: Translation for Translators)
Some languages do not have a concept of kingship and therefore no immediate equivalent for the Greek, Hebrew, Aramaic, and Latin that is translated as “king” in English. Here are some (back-) translations:
Ninia Yali: “big brother with the uplifted name” (source: Daud Soesilio in Noss 2007, p. 175)
Nyamwezi: mutemi: generic word for ruler, by specifying the city or nation it becomes clear what kind of ruler (source: Pioneer Bible Translators, project-specific translation notes in Paratext)
Ghomála’: Fo (“The word Fo refers to the paramount ruler in the kingdoms of West Cameroon. He holds administrative, political, and religious power over his own people, who are divided into two categories: princes (descendants of royalty) and servants (everyone else).” (Source: Michel Kenmogne in Theologizing in Context: An Example from the Study of a Ghomala’ Christian Hymn))
Faye Edgerton retells how the term in Navajo (Dinė) was determined:
“[This term was] easily expressed in the language of Biblical culture, which had kings and noblemen with their brilliant trappings and their position of honor and praise. But leadership among the Navajos is not accompanied by any such titles or distinctions of dress. Those most respected, especially in earlier days, were their headmen, who were the leaders in raids, and the shaman, who was able to serve the people by appealing for them to the gods, or by exorcising evil spirits. Neither of these made any outward show. Neither held his position by political intrigue or heredity. If the headman failed consistently in raids, he was superceded by a better warrior. If the shaman failed many times in his healing ceremonies, it was considered that he was making mistakes in the chants, or had lost favor with the gods, and another was sought. The term Navajos use for headman is derived from a verb meaning ‘to move the head from side to side as in making an oration.’ The headman must be a good orator, able to move the people to go to war, or to follow him in any important decision. This word is naat’áanii which now means ‘one who rules or bosses.’ It is employed now for a foreman or boss of any kind of labor, as well as for the chairman of the tribal council. So in order to show that the king is not just a common boss but the highest ruler, the word ‘aláahgo, which expresses the superlative degree, was put before naat’áanii, and so ‘aláahgo naat’áanii ‘anyone-more-than-being around-he-moves-his-head-the-one-who’ means ‘the highest ruler.’ Naat’áanii was used for governor as the context usually shows that the person was a ruler of a country or associated with kings.”
Since this verse is difficult to interpret, there are several possible ways to understand it, which will be evident in the discussion that follows.
Who stirred up one from the east whom victory meets at every step?: Here God asks the coastal nations who raised up the victor from the east. Since he answers this question at the end of verse 4, it is not really rhetorical. Yahweh is the one who appointed this person. For stirred up, see the comments on 13.17. Here it may be rendered “raised up” (Revised English Bible), “prompted,” or even “brought” (Good News Translation). Bible en français courant has “put on his way.”
One from the east is a vague reference. Some commentators believe it points to Abraham, who came from Haran, which was east of Israel. However, from the wider context it is obvious that Cyrus, the Persian emperor, is in view. Persia was east of Babylonia, where the Jews were in exile. He captured the Babylonian Empire after consolidating his power over the Median and Persian Empires in 539 B.C. Later he allowed the exiled Jews to return home.
Whom victory meets at every step describes Yahweh’s agent. This line is literally “righteousness/victory meets him to his foot” or “righteousness/victory he calls it to his foot.” For Revised Standard Version this line means God’s agent is victorious wherever he goes (also Revised English Bible, Bible en français courant; see also the second example below). For Good News Translation it means God makes his agent victorious wherever he goes. Both Revised Standard Version and Good News Translation understand the phrase “to his foot” as an idiom for wherever God’s agent goes. For New Revised Standard Version this line means God summons the victor to serve him. It renders the whole question as “Who has roused a victor from the east, summoned him to his service?” (similarly New International Version, New American Bible, New Jewish Publication Society’s Tanakh; see also the first example below). New Revised Standard Version understands the Hebrew word rendered meets in its usual sense of “to call,” and it takes “to his foot” as an idiom for serving God. The Hebrew syntax allows for the interpretations of Revised Standard Version, New Revised Standard Version, and Good News Translation, but we prefer the one in New Revised Standard Version since the Hebrew verb here is repeated in verse 4, where it clearly has the sense of “to call.” New Revised Standard Version‘s rendering shows the link between the call of this agent and God’s call of previous agents (verse 4).
The Hebrew word rendered victory is usually translated “righteousness” (see the comments on 1.21), but it often means “victory” or “deliverance/salvation” in Isaiah. Here it indicates that the victorious military actions of God’s agent are a triumph for justice. New American Bible catches this sense with “the champion of justice,” while New Jerusalem Bible prefers “saving justice.” Because of the context most translations prefer the sense of “victory.” However, translators should try to retain the broader sense of the Hebrew term here by saying “righteous/just victory.”
He gives up nations before him means God gives his agent victory over nations (so RSV/NRSV, Good News Translation, Contemporary English Version, New International Version, New Jerusalem Bible, New American Bible, New Jewish Publication Society’s Tanakh), or his agent conquers nations (so Revised English Bible, Bible en français courant). The meaning here depends on the referents for the pronouns He and him. He most likely points to God, while the pronoun him clearly refers to God’s agent, Cyrus. New Jerusalem Bible makes this very evident by rendering the whole line as “him to whom Yahweh delivers up the nations.” For RSV/NRSV, New International Version, and New American Bible this line begins a statement about what God does (see the first example below), but for Good News Translation, Contemporary English Version, and Revised English Bible this line and the next one continue the question in the first two lines (see the second example below). Both views are acceptable.
So that he tramples kings under foot: The connector so that suggests that what follows is a purpose, but the Hebrew connector is simply “and” (New Revised Standard Version). This line is parallel to the previous one. But again, who is acting here? Is it the LORD or Cyrus? Both are possible since the Hebrew syntax does not allow a clear decision. As in the previous line, we prefer God as the actor. If translators have Cyrus as the subject of the previous line, he should also be the actor here. The Hebrew verb rendered tramples … under foot means “to beat down” or “to bring down.” Here it refers to subduing or conquering kings. For the whole line Revised English Bible has “and overthrowing their kings,” while New International Version says “and subdues kings before him.” Good News Translation combines this line with the previous one, saying “Who gives him victory over kings and nations?” (similarly Contemporary English Version).
He makes them like dust with his sword is literally “he makes like dust his sword.” Once again the identity of the pronouns is an issue. The pronoun he can refer to God or Cyrus, but the pronoun his clearly points to Cyrus. Translators should be consistent with what has been done earlier in the verse. The pronoun them is added by Revised Standard Version for clarity. It refers back to the kings and their nations. Other languages may find this addition helpful. This line means that Cyrus’ army destroys nations. Here their destruction is compared with turning things into dust. His sword is an image for Cyrus’ army (see the comments on 1.20). Most versions keep the imagery of dust and sword; for example, New International Version translates this line as “He turns them to dust with his sword.” If this imagery is inappropriate in the receptor language, another possible rendering is “He destroys them with his sword [or, army] and they become like dust.”
Like driven stubble with his bow is parallel with the previous line. It, too, describes Cyrus’ destruction of nations. The phrase He makes them in the previous line is implied here. Like driven stubble is another simile for the destruction of the nations. Stubble refers to what is left standing on the ground after a crop of grain has been harvested (see the comments on 5.24). Here it is better rendered “straw” (Good News Translation, New Jewish Publication Society’s Tanakh, Bible en français courant) or “chaff” (New International Version, Revised English Bible) since it is driven by the wind. Like Good News Translation, many versions make “the wind” explicit here. His bow is another image for Cyrus’ army. The bow is one half of the “bow and arrow” weapon. The bow itself does not destroy; the arrow does the damage (see the comments on 5.28 and 13.18). So Good News Translation and Bible en français courant use “arrows” here. If the imagery in this line is inappropriate in the receptor language, another possible rendering is “he scatters them with his arrows [or, army] like wind scattering straw/chaff.”
Translation examples for this verse are:
• “Who is the one who raised up a just victor from the east,
calling him to his service?
God has delivered up nations to him;
he subdues their kings.
His sword has destroyed them, they are dust;
his weapons have made them into straw/chaff blown by the wind.
• “Who has raised up a person from the east,
whose every step achieves a righteous victory?
Who hands nations over to him,
and subdues kings before him?
He makes them like dust with his sword,
like wind-blown chaff with his bow [and arrows].
Quoted with permission from Ogden, Graham S. and Sterk, Jan. A Handbook on Isaiah. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2011. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .
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