wine

Click here to view graphically

The Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek that are translated as “wine” in English is translated into Pass Valley Yali as “grape juice pressed long ago (= fermented)” or “strong water” (source: Daud Soesilo). In Guhu-Samane it is also translated as “strong water” (source: Ernest L. Richert in The Bible Translator 1965, p. 198ff. ), in Noongar as “liquor” (verbatim: “strong water”) (source: Warda-Kwabba Luke-Ang), in Hausa as ruwan inabi or “water of grapes” (with no indication whether it’s alcoholic or not — source: Mark A. Gaddis), in sar as kasə nduú or “grape drink” (source: Andy Warren-Rothlin), or in Papantla Totonac and Coyutla Totonac as “a drink like Pulque” (for “Pulque,” see here ) (source: Jacob Loewen in The Bible Translator 1971, p. 169ff. ).

In Swahili, Bible translations try to avoid local words for alcoholic drinks, because “drinking of any alcohol at all was one of the sins most denounced by early missionaries. Hence translators are uncomfortable by the occurrences of wine in the Bible. Some of the established churches which use wine prefer to see church wine as holy, and would not refer to it by the local names used for alcoholic drinks. Instead church wine is often referred to by terms borrowed from other languages, divai (from German, der Wein) or vini/mvinyo (from ltalian/Latin vino/vinum). Several translations done by Protestants have adapted the Swahili divai for ‘wine,’ while those done by Catholics use vini or mvinyo.” (Source: Rachel Konyoro in The Bible Translator 1985, p. 221ff. )

The Swahili divai was in turn borrowed by Sabaot and was turned into tifaayiik and is used as such in the Bible. Kupsabiny, on the other hand, borrowed mvinyo from Swahili and turned it into Finyonik. (Source: Iver Larsen)

In Nyamwezi, two terms are used. Malwa ga muzabibu is a kind of alcohol that people specifically use to get drunk (such as in Genesis 9:21) and ki’neneko is used for a wine made from grapes (source: Pioneer Bible Translators, project-specific translation notes in Paratext).

In some Hindi translations (such as the Common Language version, publ. 2015 ), one term (dākharasa दाखरस — grape juice) is used when that particular drink is in the focus (such as in John 2) and another term (madirā मदिरा — “alcohol” or “liquor”) when drunkenness is in the focus (such as in Eph. 5:18).

In Mandarin Chinese, the generic term jiǔ (酒) or “alcohol(ic drink)” is typically used. Exceptions are Leviticus 10:9, Numbers 6:3, Deuteronomy 29:6, Judges 13:4 et al., 1 Samuel 1:15, and Luke 1:15 where a differentiation between weak and strong alcohol is needed. The Mandarin Chinese Union Version (2010) translates that as qīngjiǔ lièjiǔ (清酒烈酒) and dànjiǔ lièjiǔ (淡酒烈酒), both in the form of a Chinese proverb and meaning “light alcohol and strong drink.” (Source: Zetzsche)

Click or tap here to see a short video clip about wine in biblical times (source: Bible Lands 2012)

See also proceeds from the vine / anything that comes from the grapevine, wine (Japanese honorifics), filled with new wine, and wine (Gen 27:28).

wheat

Two kinds of wild wheat have grown in the open deciduous oak woodland in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent for several thousand years: Einkorn Wheat Triticum monococcum and Emmer Wheat Triticum dicoccum. Both came into cultivation together with barley. Just before the time of the Romans, the Naked Bread Wheat or Hard Wheat Triticum durum started replacing the hulled varieties. This then became the favorite type of wheat for bread and macaroni. Spelt is a sub-member of the Triticum aestivum species.

In NRSVue and some other versions, the generic Hebrew word bar has been rendered “wheat” in Jeremiah 23:28 et al. This is legitimate, since the grain referred to by bar was probably wheat. However, it might be better to say “grain” in these passages.

The most important early wheat for the Israelites was emmer, probably the only wheat known in Egypt, and referred to in Hebrew as chittah. However, according to Hepper (Baker Encyclopedia of Bible Plants: Flowers and Trees, Fruits and Vegetables, Ecology. Baker Book House, 1992), the seven-headed wheat of the Egyptian king’s dream (Genesis 41:5ff.) suggests that there may also have been Triticum turgidum (rivet wheat) in the emmer group. The Hebrew word kusemeth probably refers to a type of emmer wheat that the Egyptians called swt.

Wheat is a type of grass like rice and barley, growing to around 75 centimeters (2.5 feet) in height and having a head with many small grains in rows.

Bread made from wheat was the staple food for the people of ancient Israel, so God punished them by breaking “the staff of bread” (see, for example, Ezekiel 4:16).

If wheat is unfamiliar, translators can transliterate from a major language in non-rhetorical contexts (for example, English witi, Portuguese trigo, French ble or froment, Swahili ngano, Arabic kama/alkama). The transliteration may add a generic tag such as “grain.” The New Testament passages are mostly rhetorical, opening the possibility for a metaphorical equivalent.

Wheat head, photo by Gloria Suess

Source: Each According to its Kind: Plants and Trees in the Bible (UBS Helps for Translators)

king

Click here to view graphically

Some languages do not have a concept of kingship and therefore no immediate equivalent for the Greek, Hebrew, Aramaic, and Latin that is translated as “king” in English. Here are some (back-) translations:

(Click or tap here to see details)

  • Piro: “a great one”
  • Highland Totonac: “the big boss”
  • Huichol: “the one who commanded” (source for this and above: Bratcher / Nida)
  • Ekari: “the one who holds the country” (source: Reiling / Swellengrebel)
  • Una: weik sienyi: “big headman” (source: Kroneman 2004, p. 407)
  • Pass Valley Yali: “Big Man” (source: Daud Soesilo)
  • Ninia Yali: “big brother with the uplifted name” (source: Daud Soesilio in Noss 2007, p. 175)
  • Nyamwezi: mutemi: generic word for ruler, by specifying the city or nation it becomes clear what kind of ruler (source: Pioneer Bible Translators, project-specific translation notes in Paratext)
  • Ghomála’: Fo (“The word Fo refers to the paramount ruler in the kingdoms of West Cameroon. He holds administrative, political, and religious power over his own people, who are divided into two categories: princes (descendants of royalty) and servants (everyone else).” (Source: Michel Kenmogne in Theologizing in Context: An Example from the Study of a Ghomala’ Christian Hymn))

Faye Edgerton retells how the term in Navajo (Dinė) was determined:

“[This term was] easily expressed in the language of Biblical culture, which had kings and noblemen with their brilliant trappings and their position of honor and praise. But leadership among the Navajos is not accompanied by any such titles or distinctions of dress. Those most respected, especially in earlier days, were their headmen, who were the leaders in raids, and the shaman, who was able to serve the people by appealing for them to the gods, or by exorcising evil spirits. Neither of these made any outward show. Neither held his position by political intrigue or heredity. If the headman failed consistently in raids, he was superceded by a better warrior. If the shaman failed many times in his healing ceremonies, it was considered that he was making mistakes in the chants, or had lost favor with the gods, and another was sought. The term Navajos use for headman is derived from a verb meaning ‘to move the head from side to side as in making an oration.’ The headman must be a good orator, able to move the people to go to war, or to follow him in any important decision. This word is naat’áanii which now means ‘one who rules or bosses.’ It is employed now for a foreman or boss of any kind of labor, as well as for the chairman of the tribal council. So in order to show that the king is not just a common boss but the highest ruler, the word ‘aláahgo, which expresses the superlative degree, was put before naat’áanii, and so ‘aláahgo naat’áanii ‘anyone-more-than-being around-he-moves-his-head-the-one-who’ means ‘the highest ruler.’ Naat’áanii was used for governor as the context usually shows that the person was a ruler of a country or associated with kings.”

(Source: Faye Edgerton in The Bible Translator 1962, p. 25ff. )

See also king (Japanese honorifics).

Translation commentary on Song of Songs 7:2

Note that, while there are similes in surrounding verses, this verse contains two metaphors, bowl and wheat. However, there is no general agreement about what these metaphors mean. Some commentators see hidden references to the woman’s more private parts and to her fertility. In view of the wide range of interpretations, the best approach may be to give a rather literal rendering here. In many languages changing the metaphors to similes by inserting comparison words “like” or “as” may be helpful.

Your navel: the parts of the body considered most beautiful vary from one cultural group to another. In the Ancient Near East, as reflected in Egyptian sculpture, the navel was thought to be an especially attractive part of a woman’s body.

A rounded bowl is what he likens her navel to. The Hebrew term here refers to a wide, round bowl, usually with two handles. The adjective refers to something round, so New English Bible and New Jerusalem Bible suggest “goblet,” or wine glass. This is an acceptable solution if a more descriptive phrase “a round bowl” cannot convey the sense adequately. Good News Translation omits the reference to her navel and simply states “A bowl is there.” This is confusing and should not be used as a model.

That never lacks mixed wine: this clause is another example of an extended metaphor (see also 5.12-16). It adds to the description of the goblet, not of the woman’s navel. In most translations this clause is treated as a relative clause describing the bowl or goblet; it is always full of wine. However, the Hebrew negative particle found here is rarely used in indicative clauses; rather it expresses a negative in imperative or optative (wish) clauses. This clause seems to be a wish, then, rather than a simple statement. The young man’s wish is that the goblet will never lack mixed wine. New Jerusalem Bible expresses this as “Let mixed wine not be lacking!” In some languages it may be more natural to express it positively, “May it always be filled with mixed wine.”

The Hebrew word translated mixed wine occurs only here, though related forms are found elsewhere. It refers to wine mixed with water and probably spices. Hence Good News Translation and New English Bible give “spiced wine.” If such a product is not known, or if explaining it would result in too long a phrase, we can simply substitute the more general “wine.” In fact wine is not the focus of the passage, so we may be able to use a substitute such as “a goblet that should be filled to the brim.” On the problems of translating wine, see 1.2.

Even if we arrive at a satisfactory translation for this rather awkward text, we still may not be clear about its meaning. Of course we cannot rule out the possibility that the reference to wine is somehow connected to lovemaking.

We can say for this part of the verse:

• Your navel is like a rounded cup.
May it always be filled with spiced wine.

Your belly is a heap of wheat: that part of the woman’s body between her navel and thighs is what is meant by belly. In modern English belly is not an elegant term. “Stomach” is hardly better, but we may have little choice about the term to use. In describing it as (like) a heap of wheat, the imagery probably again suggests gentle roundness; it may also mean a golden color. Avoid Good News Translation “a sheaf of” wheat, as it does not adequately represent the sense of the text. The translator should again look for a term that is poetic. In English “mound” is more poetic than “heap,” for example. Wheat being the basic grain crop of the area, translators may need to use a local grain crop as a substitute if wheat is unknown. The basis of the comparison should be the same, however, pointing to the roundness of the heap or its golden color.

Encircled with lilies is a difficult phrase. We note that it is an extended metaphor, that is to say, it adds to the description of the mound of wheat and not the woman’s stomach. Her stomach is not surrounded by a bunch of flowers! After harvest the wheat was threshed, gathered into heaps, and left to dry. At such times it was protected, perhaps by a surrounding fence made of brambles. The problem is that, as an extended metaphor describing the wheat, lilies seems an inappropriate plant to encircle it. There seems, therefore, to be some mixing of metaphors here. Some commentators assume the lilies refer to a loose belt tied around the young woman’s hips. However, lilies may simply be speaking of the young woman herself, as they are always associated with her and with the image of the “garden” (4.5; 5.13; 6.2-3), where her lover is welcome to come. Since the sense of the author is not at all clear here, a literal translation may be our only possibility.

For translation we suggest:

• Your navel is like a beautiful cup,
may it always be overflowing with wine!
Your stomach, round and golden,
is like a mound of wheat surrounded by lilies.

Quoted with permission from Ogden, Graham S. and Zogbo, Lynell. A Handbook on the Book of Song of Songs. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 1998. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .

SIL Translator’s Notes on Song of Songs 7:2

7:2a–b

Your navel is a rounded goblet; it never lacks blended wine: Here the man used a metaphor. He compared the woman’s navel to a goblet that always has wine in it. It is the goblet that is filled with wine, not the woman’s navel. Her navel is like the goblet because it is round and can hold liquid. The wine in the goblet is a symbol of romantic love. This metaphor implies that the woman’s love excited the man, as if he were drinking wine.

Some ways to translate the metaphor are:

• Use the metaphor and adapt it for your culture. For example:

your navel is a wine glass filled to overflowing. (Contemporary English Version)

• Use a simile. For example:

Your navel is like a round drinking cup always filled with wine. (New Century Version)
-or-
Your navel is like a gourd filled with wine.

• Use a simile and indicate the meaning. For example:

Your navel is perfectly formed like a goblet filled with mixed wine. (New Living Translation (2004))

• Translate the meaning without mentioning the bowl or cup. For example:

Your navel is as exciting as the best wine.

navel: In ancient Israel and all the countries near it, a woman’s navel was considered especially beautiful. Except for the Good News Translation, all English versions refer explicitly to the navel. See the footnote for more information.

rounded goblet: The Hebrew phrase that the Berean Standard Bible translates as rounded goblet is literally “bowl the-roundness.” This type of goblet was often wide and round. Here the man used it to describe the woman’s navel. In some cultures it may not be appropriate to compare a woman’s navel to a goblet. It also may not be natural to describe the navel as “round.”

If that is true in your language, you may use a different comparison. For example:

your navel is like a wine glass
-or-
your navel is like a gourd ⌊for drinking⌋

it never lacks blended wine: There are two main ways to interpret the Hebrew phrase that the Berean Standard Bible translates as it never lacks blended wine :

(1) It is a statement that describes the woman’s navel. For example:

that never lacks blended wine… (New International Version)

(2) It is a wish or desire. For example:

Let mixed wine not be lacking… (Tanakh: The Holy Scriptures)

It is recommended that you follow interpretation (1), along with most English versions.

blended wine: The Hebrew word that the Berean Standard Bible translates as blended wine is used only here in the OT. It probably refers to a special wine that is mixed with spices. Some other ways to translate it are:

spiced wine (Good News Translation)
-or-
wine
-or-

⌊ delicious⌋wine

For more information on how to translate wine, see the note on wine in 1:2b.

7:2c–d

Your waist is a mound of wheat encircled by the lilies: The statement is 7:2c–d is a metaphor. It indicates that the woman’s waist was beautiful and nourishing like a pile of wheat surrounded by lilies. wheat was used to make bread, which was an important food in Palestine. lilies were very beautiful flowers.

Here wheat implies abundant food, and lilies imply beauty. Together these words imply that the woman’s love was like food and beauty for the man. Her navel satisfied him like food and made him feel happy. Some other ways to translate the metaphor are:

• Use a simile. For example:

Your stomach is like a pile of wheat surrounded with lilies. (New Century Version)

• Use a simile and indicate the meaning of the comparison. For example:

Your belly is lovely, like a heap of wheat set about with lilies. (New Living Translation (1996))

7:2c

Your waist is a mound of wheat: Here the man praised the woman by comparing her waist to a mound of wheat. Scholars are not sure how her waist was like a mound of wheat. They are also uncertain whether the mound of wheat refers to a pile of wheat grains or to wheat sheaves before a farmer removes the grains from them.

The pile of wheat grains probably had curved sides. The author may imply that the woman’s waist had similar curves and maybe also a golden color like ripe wheat grains or sheaves.