“Across the continent, and more specifically in West Africa, large out-jutting rocks are, along with certain large trees and rivers, considered sacred. ‘Genies’ (good and evil spirits) dwell in these locations, where they are invoked and where they receive blood sacrifices. Prayers are offered for riches, happiness, success, fertility, security, etc. Thus, it is not unusual in various regions to see a large grouping of rocks stained with blood, with a smattering of chicken feathers, and other unusual markings – i.e., pure white cotton strips tied around the rocks themselves.

“Prayers offered at ‘the rock’ are often for protection, whether the dangers being invoked are spiritual or material. For example, in Niger, Zarma fishermen (of the Sorko cast) offer sacrifices on rocks jutting out of the river to protect them from dangerous hippos or alligators.

“Given the sacredness of these locations, in some cultures, only certain members of society may be allowed in their vicinity. For example, in Angola these rocks are not visited ‘by just anyone’: they are ‘mysterious.’ Likewise, in parts of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), these dwelling places of spirits are not accessible to all, but rather only to the initiated or older members of the community. In other cultures, however, stone outcroppings may be a major meeting place, playing a major role in community life, being the place of regular and/or annual sacrifices.

“In the Baoule culture (Cote d’lvoire), the ‘rock’ plays a central role in traditional worship. The word ‘rock’ evokes immediately in all speakers uprooted or displaced. It serves as a spiritual intermediary and a protector. Often this rock is situated near a source of water, facilitating animal sacrifice, which may include chickens, sheep or even a cow or bull, usually on a yearly basis. This rock is also where important alliances are sealed, in the presence of (and by invoking) the spirits. The place is to be the notion of a ‘god,’ as well as a place where one goes to ask for protection from danger. The Baoule expression ‘Let’s go to the rock’ means ‘Let’s go worship/sacrifice’ (to ancestors and/or genies, not God). The rock (yebue or yɔgbuɛ) is in fact considered ‘a little god,’ which is fixed hard, lasting through time, not able to be kept pure at all times, and while all may go to the rock, a number of strict rules protect its sacredness: menstruating women may not go to the rock, ‘normal’ non-sacrificed food may not be eaten there, and pregnant women cannot visit this location on given days (Wednesdays and Fridays!). Finally, it is not permitted to speak evil of this ‘god.’ In some cultures, rocks are associated with important historic events. For example, in one location in DRC, a specific rock is known as the first place a white explorer arrived. It is reported that genies appear regularly at this rock, sometimes in the form of a man, and sometimes as a woman with three breasts. In recent times during the war, genies are said to have appeared at this rock to prevent rebels from attacking a nearby village. These rocks, associated with important ancestors and actors in history have become important places of worship.

“Attitudes towards the ‘rock’ vary from one culture to another and from one language to another. While in some cultures (Doyayo, Cameroon), the rock evokes fear, in others, some speakers say the word ‘rock’ evokes a powerful divinity who answers prayer. In Toussian culture (Gur, Burkina Faso), bits of the larger rock are broken off and taken home from the sacrifice place and hidden in houses, where they will be venerated by future generations.

“In some cultures, the name ‘rock’ may be given to children when they are born. Among the Baoules, for example, a child may be named Yobus or Ysbue. This person may be so named because of the relationship between a particular family and the rock, and the person named ‘rock’ may then ‘represent for his family a force of spiritual importance.’ The person may be feared because of his or her mystic powers that can be used against others. ‘You do not fear this child, man, or woman; you can insult them or disrespect them, but (you must be careful) to not insult or offend this little ‘god’ this person represents.’ If the rock is offended, one must go to the rock, not the person named rock, to ask forgiveness.

“In Baoule culture, the person named ‘rock’ is usually known as someone having a difficult personality. The following advice was given by an old man: ‘Never name one of your sons ‘rock.’ Rocks are hard. If you make the mistake of naming one of your sons ‘rock,’ he will have a difficult personality, hard like a stone.’ 30 When a certain pastor with this name committed suicide, people surmised that: ‘He died because his name was Yobus. Demons took advantage of a moment of spiritual weakness… and led him to commit suicide.’ A village with the name Yobuekro (‘village of stone’) is considered by some to be cursed because of its name. Following its founding, this town never grew and its inhabitants eventually abandoned it.

“In other cultures, ‘rock’ may be part of a name acquired after birth, imposed by others, or assumed by the person himself. Thus, in Worodougou, a Mande language spoken in Cote d’lvoire, some young people call themselves Gbofia, kawa nyanjunghun, ‘the rock, the wrong side of a stone,’ evoking their dependability and hard work. Nothing (no hard task) scares them, so their presence is reassuring.

“In many cultures, rocks are used figuratively to refer to problems that are difficult to solve or to people who exhibit certain personality traits. In Mwan, comparing people to a rock means that they are hardhearted, resistant towards others. Such people are difficult, refusing to forgive or to let others have their way. In Kikongo, a rock may refer in a figurative sense to an obstacle and problem that is difficult to resolve. Thus it is reported that a big witch gave himself the name ‘Scratch the rock,’ meaning that he is invincible and has great spiritual power. Anyone who ‘scratches the rock’ (attacks him) will be in great trouble. In a Christian song in Baoule, believers sing, ‘The big rocks, Jesus uprooted them.’ According to one person, this means that Jesus has driven out strong demons, 35 but it is also possible that it means Jesus has destroyed fetish worship or idolatry.

“In light of these observations, it is clear translators in African contexts are faced with an important question: Can the word ‘rock’ be used in a metaphorical sense to refer to Yahweh, for example, in the verses cited above? Several pastors, especially of Baoule origin, have responded with a firm ‘No!’ One pastor commented ‘The Baoules have a little god (represented by the rock), but this little god is definitely NOT the all-powerful God, Creator.’ Indeed, in the Baoule Bible published in 1998, the ‘rock’ metaphor referring to God seems to have been purposely avoided in the book of Psalms. When the word ‘rock’ occurs referring to God, translators have consistently translated ‘God on whom I lean,’ as in the rendering of Psalm 73:26: ‘the one on whom I lean, it’s you.’

“In Doyayo (Cameroon), a translator notes, ‘it would be hard to understand Rock as a symbol of security and use it to refer to God.’ The translator suggests the possibility of replacing one metaphor by another, using a functional equivalent, soolkolunyo, ‘stick of traveler,’ i.e., ‘walking stick,’ also called affectionately ‘my companion in all circumstances.’ The walking stick is a very strong symbol in Doyayo culture, used in times of danger, for example, when crossing a flooded river, or when warding off an attack. This proposal has not yet been tried out, but it seems a possible solution to a rather complex translation problem in this language.

“Even in cultures where there is a direct link between the rock and traditional African worship, however, some Christians would favor trying to retain this biblical image, introducing it as a new metaphor or ‘reorienting’ a current one. For some Baoule theologians, for example, along with all its other seemingly negative connotations, the rock can be seen as a symbol of solidity and immovability. Thus, it could represent strength and resistance, or someone with an unchangeable nature. One Baoule pastor quoted the idiomatic expression ‘be strong like a rock’ (…). Thus, some suggest it is possible to say in Baoule ‘God is my strong rock’ in a Christian context, despite its negative connotations in a non-Christian one.

“One translator in Dzùùngoo, a Mande language spoken in Burkina Faso, notes that while ‘rock’ refers to a place of (bloody) sacrifice, the word does have positive connotations in everyday life, as a grinding stone for flour, as a foundation of a house, etc. He thus proposes it might be possible to use the word ‘rock’ to refer to God, perhaps with a footnote or a note in the glossary to explain that worship of good and evil spirits is not intended.

“Despite its ‘fetish’ origins, some speakers seem to be able to ‘look beyond’ and transfer the already figurative meaning of ‘rock’ in their culture to another element, namely the unique and all- powerful God. They are willing to widen their worldview and transfer the positive traits of the traditional ‘rock’ or ‘god’ to the unique Divinity. Such a viewpoint may be motivated by a desire to remain faithful to the Scriptural text, but also by the desire to allow readers access to the biblical metaphors as they occur in the Hebrew text. Such ‘intrusions’ into or changes in the semantic make-up of a given word and concept are very common linguistically speaking: semantic ‘extensions’ or changes of meaning in words of all types are everyday occurrences in languages around the world. But it is clear, if Bible translators take such as a step, for example, concerning the rendering of a highly ‘explosive’ word like ‘rock,’ they will inevitably set in motion a semantic change in their own mother tongue, a change which, given the written nature of the Scriptures, will probably remain in effect for generations.

“In some languages in Africa, a literal rendering of ‘rock’ does not seem to pose a problem. In Guro, for example, proverbs, songs, and names provide evidence that the notion ‘rock’ carries semantic traits that fit the biblical use: strength, resistance, security, and permanence. Thus, a Guro proverb says, ‘An elephant will always see you, unless you are behind a rock.’ (…)

“As mentioned above, it remains to be seen which exact semantic trait is in view in each case of the appearance of the word ‘rock’ in the Psalms or in its other occurrences in the Bible. When it co-occurs with words like ‘refuge,’ it seems to indicate a place to hide; but in other contexts, it may carry the meaning of stability.

“In some African languages, hardness is equal to strength. Thus in Yocoboué Dida, Godié and Guiberoua Béte, Kru languages spoken in Cote d’lvoire, instead of calling God a ‘strong’ or ‘hard rock,’ it may be better to call him directly ‘strength,’ though this removes the rock metaphor, one of the important praise names for God in the Psalms. Despite the mismatch between the biblical ‘rock’ (the Lord), and ‘rock’ in many African languages, the idiomatic expression ‘having one’s feet on a rock,’ does seem to be an effective metaphor, posing no problem in translation. In Worodougou, for example, a similar metaphor appears in a woman’s song, where a woman praises her husband as a source of strength in adversity:

“A big wind comes, my hand grabs a strong tree, A big wind comes, my feet are on a hard rock.

“Thus, despite the possibility of ‘mismatch,’ there are many cases where the notion of ‘God as rock’ will communicate effectively. This study underlines, however, the need for translators to consider not only the semantic component of key terms in their biblical contexts, but also to remain vigilant and to anticipate potential misunderstandings due to cultural backdrop. Though it is hard to imagine a Bible in Africa without the powerful metaphor and strong image, ‘God, my rock,’ in some cultures and languages, this may indeed be a necessary choice. Referring to the All Powerful Yahweh as ‘my rock,’ may confuse readers and immediately evoke the worship of spirits rather than God!”