3your south sector shall extend from the wilderness of Zin along the side of Edom. Your southern boundary shall begin from the end of the Dead Sea on the east;
The various Greek, Aramaic, Ge’ez, and Latin and Hebrew terms that are translated as “sea,” “ocean,” or “lake” in English are all translated in Chichewa with one term: nyanja. Malawi, where Chichewa is spoken, has a lot of lakes but does not share a border with the ocean (source: Mawu a Mulungu mu Chichewa Chalero Back Translation). Likewise, in Toposa all the different bodies of water are all called by one term as well: nya-name̥ (source: Schröder 2026, p. 101).
In Malagasy culture, the sea is perceived as sacred because it was a path taken by the ancestors. That is why the Malagasy word for the “sea” is ranomasina, which literally means “the sacred water.” The word masina actually has two different meanings: “salted” and “sacred/holy.” Salt is used for the conservation of some foods, such as meat or fish, that are to be set aside for later use. In this sense, the Malagasy phrase for “Holy Spirit” has the literal meaning of “Salted Spirit.” (Source: Brigitte Rabarijaona in The Bible Translator 2022, p. 103ff.)
“Sea” (or: “ocean”) is translated in Tepeuxila Cuicatec as “water land” and in Xicotepec De Juárez Totonac as “very big lake.” (Source: Viola Waterhouse in Notes on Translation August 1966, p. 86ff.)
According to Anne Garber Kompaoré (in Le Sycomore 3/2009, p. 34ff. ), there are 4 ways to identify cardinal directions:
1. celestial bodies, especially the sun and certain stars
2. geographical landmarks, for example a mountain, sea, or river (depending on its position or the direction in which the water flows) etc.
3. climatic phenomena, such as the wind and the direction from which rain comes
4. bodily reference points, especially front, back, left, and right, in relation to celestial bodies or geographical landmarks
Following are examples of how these are practically implemented by various languages: (click or tap here to see the rest of this insight)
Celestial Bodies
East and west are often translated by the rising and the setting of the sun (note that the origin of English and other Indo-European languages is “dawn” for “east” and “evening” [i.e. sun-down] for “west”):
Maan: “where the sun comes up” and “where the sun goes down” (source: Don Slager)
Kankanaey: “from the coming-out of the sun “and “going-away of the sun” (source: Kankanaey back-translation)
Northern Emberá: “from where the sun comes up” and “from where the sun falls” (source: Charles Mortensen)
Ejamat “the side where the sun comes from” and “the side where it sets” (source: David Frank in this blog post )
Tzeltal: “where the sun pours-out” (west) (source: Reiling / Swellengrebel)
Northern Ngbandi: “the sun behind the chief’s house” (east — the chief lives traditionally at the eastern side of the village, therefore he does not get the sunlight into his eyes) and “under the sun” (west)
Northwestern Dinka: “earth behind” (east — the place behind the earth, i.e. the area where the sun rises)
Jula: “salt village” (north — because salt comes from the north, from the Sahara Desert) and “kola village” (south — since kola comes from the coastal region to the south) (source: Garber Kompaoré)
Matumbi: “toward the beach” (East) (the coast is in the eastern direction in Matumbi-speaking areas), “north” and “south” can be defined as above or below another place (Source: Pioneer Bible Translators, project-specific notes in Paratext)
Acoli: “right” (of the local White Nile) (north) and “left” (of the White Nile) (south)
Zande: “interior (dry) land” (east); “place-inside-country” (north / south) — Zande, like a number of other languages, including Matengo and Hehe, traditionally only has three cardinal directions.
Belanda Bor: “lower place” (north) and “higher place” (south)
Turkana: “(up)stream” (north) and (down)stream (south)
Mono (DRC): “water place” (south) (source for this and five above: Mietzner / Pasch)
Climatic Phenomena
Shilluk: “opening westwind” (north) and “opening eastwind” (south)
Swahili used to have six directions. In reducing them to four, kusini and kaskazini which used to refer to south-west and north east respectively (the directions from where the two monsoons blow) have become the terms for “south” and north.” (source for this and one above: Mietzner / Pasch)
Bodily Reference Points
Nuer / Burun: “face” and “sun face” respectively (both: east)
Kalenjin: “eye sun” (east) (this and the one above indicate that the sun is “facing” the spectator from its position in the east:
Shilluk: doesn’t use a fixed position of the speaker, instead it has “eye sun morning” for east and “eye sun evening” for west
Mono (DRC): “foot-sun” (east — the start of the sun’s journey)
Burun: “sun leg” (west — the end of the sun’s journey)
Bari: “back” (north — when people are facing south, north is at their back) (source for this and above: Mietzner / Pasch)
Northern Emberá “the looking [left] hand” (north) and “the real [right] hand” (south) (source: Charles Mortensen)
Morelos Nahuatl: “from above” (north) and “from below” (south) (source: Viola Waterhouse in Notes on Translation August 1966, p. 86ff.)
When all four directions are mentioned, translators tend to avoid listing the four, sometimes verbose terms, and chose solutions like “all directions” (such as in Maan or Manya (source: Don Slager). Yakan has “from the four corners of the earth” (source: Yakan back-translation) and Western Bukidnon Manobo “from the four directions here on the earth” (source: Western Bukidnon Manobo back-translation).
The Hebrew text that gives instructions where to place items in the tabernacle with the help of cardinal directions (north and south) had to be approached in the Bambam translation specific to spacial concepts of that culture. Phil Campbell explains: “There are no words in Bambam for north and south. In Exodus 26:35, God instructs that the table is to be placed on the north side and the lamp on the south side inside the tabernacle. The team wants to use right and left to tell where the lamp and table are located. In many languages we would say that the table is on the right and the lampstand is on the left based on the view of someone entering the tabernacle. However, that is not how Bambam people view it. They view the placement of things and rooms in a building according to the orientation of someone standing inside the building facing the front of the building. So that means the table is on the left side and the lampstand is on the right side.”
Following are a number of back-translations as well as a sample translation for translators of Numbers 34:3:
Kupsabiny: “At the south side, your country ends at the wilderness of Zin where it touches Edom. That border begins from the edge of the Salt Lake in the East.” (Source: Kupsabiny Back Translation)
Newari: “Some parts of the wilderness of Zin on the border of Edom is located on your southern boundary. Your southern boundary will start from the shore of the Dead Sea to the East” (Source: Newari Back Translation)
Hiligaynon: “‘The border on the south is the desert of Zin, in the boundary of Edom. It will-start in the southern portion of the Dead Sea.” (Source: Hiligaynon Back Translation)
English: “On the south you will receive part of the Zin Desert, near the border of the Edom region. On the east side, the border will start at the south end of the Dead Sea.” (Source: Translation for Translators)
Click or tap here to see the rest of this insight.
Like a number of other East Asian languages, Japanese uses a complex system of honorifics, i.e. a system where a number of different levels of politeness are expressed in language via words, word forms or grammatical constructs. These can range from addressing someone or referring to someone with contempt (very informal) to expressing the highest level of reference (as used in addressing or referring to God) or any number of levels in-between.
One way Japanese shows different degree of politeness is through the choice of a formal plural suffix to the second person pronoun (“you” and its various forms) as shown here in the widely-used Japanese Shinkaiyaku (新改訳) Bible of 2017. In these verses, anata-gata (あなたがた) is used, combining the second person pronoun anata and the plural suffix -gata to create a formal plural pronoun (“you” [plural] in English).
The systematic delineation of the borders in chapter 34 underscores the certainty of God’s promise and reminds the new generation of the description of the area covered by the spies in chapter 13. The original promise of the land to the old generation is still valid for the new one (so Olson, page 187).
Your south side shall be …: The Hebrew text starts a new sentence here (see the comments on the previous verse). “The southern border” (Good News Translation) of the land corresponds with the southern border for the tribe of Judah in Josh 15.1-4 (so Noth, pages 248-249). See also Ezek 47.19.
From the wilderness of Zin along the side of Edom refers to the southeastern edge of the territory. For the wilderness of Zin, see 13.21; for the kingdom (or chiefdom) of Edom, see 20.14. Along the side of Edom refers to the western edge of Edom. La Nouvelle Bible Segond says “near Edom.”
And your southern boundary shall be …: This phrase goes back to the beginning of the southern border, resuming its description in more detail. So the translation should not give the wrong suggestion that this phrase continues the southern boundary where the previous verse left it. Good News Translation avoids this problem by translating “It will begin…” (similarly Bijbel in Gewone Taal). Compare also “Your southern boundary shall start…” (New Jewish Publication Society’s Tanakh; similarly La Nouvelle Bible Segond).
From the end of the Salt Sea on the east refers to the eastern tip of the southern border. For the Salt Sea, which is also called “the Dead Sea” (Good News Translation), see A Handbook on Genesis at Gen 14.3. Chewa says “the Lake of Salt.”
And your boundary shall turn south of the ascent of Akrabbim: The Hebrew word for ascent comes from the same root as the verb meaning “go up.” It refers to a mountain pass here. In many parts of the world such passes do not exist because there are no mountains, so translators will have to find a descriptive phrase, such as “mountain road” or “way through the mountain.” The name Akrabbim means “scorpion,” but no one knows for sure why this place had this name. It may indicate that this pass was especially steep and dangerous. Some versions may prefer to translate this name for easier comprehension, saying “Scorpion Pass” (Contemporary English Version). This clause is literally “and the border for you will turn from [the] south of the ascent of Akrabbim,” which means Akrabbim Pass lay within the border (so Rashi). De Nieuwe Bijbelvertaling makes this clear by saying “It goes in a curve southerly around the Scorpions Pass.”
And cross to Zin means the southern border will pass through the wilderness of Zin. New Century Version says “and go through the Desert of Zin.”
And its end shall be south of Kadesh-barnea is literally “and its extremities will be to the south of Kadesh-barnea,” which means the southern most point of the border will be just south of Kadesh-barnea. For the town of Kadesh-barnea, which is also called “Kadesh,” see 13.26. De Nieuwe Bijbelvertaling renders this clause as “then it goes directly to a point south of Kadesh-Barnea.” New Living Translation provides a helpful model, saying “Its southernmost point will be Kadesh-barnea.”
Then it shall go on to Hazar-addar, and pass along to Azmon: Hazar-addar and Azmon were cities on the southern border of Judah (see Josh 15.3-4). Good News Translation provides a helpful model here, saying “Then it will turn northwest to Hazar Addar and on to Azmon.”
And the boundary shall turn from Azmon to the Brook of Egypt: The Brook of Egypt probably refers to the Wadi El-Arish, which flows into the Mediterranean Sea and is located in the northeastern part of the Sinai Peninsula about 80 kilometers (50 miles) southwest of Gaza (so Noth, page 249). For the Hebrew word rendered Brook (nachal), see the comments on 13.23. De Nieuwe Bijbelvertaling provides a helpful model for the Brook of Egypt, saying “the wadi that forms the border with Egypt,” and so does SPCL with “the creek that borders with Egypt.”
And its termination shall be at the sea means the western end of the southern boundary will be the Mediterranean Sea. The sea in this context refers to the Mediterranean (compare 13.29). New Century Version makes this clear by rendering this clause as “and it will end at the Mediterranean Sea” (similarly Good News Translation).
Quoted with permission from de Regt, Lénart J. and Wendland, Ernst R. A Handbook on Numbers. (UBS Helps for Translators). Miami: UBS, 2016. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .
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