1“The tabernacle itself you shall make with ten curtains of fine twisted linen and blue, purple, and crimson yarns; you shall make them with cherubim skillfully worked into them.
Some key biblical terms that were directly transliterated from the Hebrew have ended up with unforeseen meanings in the lexicons of various recipient languages.
Take, for example, the English word “cherub,” from Hebrew “kĕrȗb.” Whereas the original Hebrew term meant something like “angelic being that is represented as part human, part animal” (…), the English word now means something like “a person, especially a child, with an innocent or chubby face.” Semantic shift has been conditioned in English by the Renaissance artistic tradition that portrayed cherubim in the guise of cute little Greek cupids. This development was of course impossible to foresee at the time when the first English translations borrowed this Hebrew word into the English Bible tradition, following the pattern of borrowing set by the Greek and Latin translations of the Old Testament.
In Russian, the semantic shift of this transliteration was somewhat different: the -îm ending of “kĕrūbîm,” originally signifying plurality in Hebrew, has been reanalyzed as merely the final part of the lexical item, so that the term херувим (kheruvim) in Russian is a singular count noun, not a plural one. (A similar degrammaticalization is seen in English writers who render the Hebrew plural kĕrūbîm as “cherubims.”) Apparently, this degrammaticalization of the Hebrew ending is what led the Russian Synodal translator of Genesis 3:24 to mistakenly render the Hebrew as saying that the Lord God placed a kheruvim (accusative masculine singular in Russian) to the east of the garden of Eden, instead of indicating a plural number of such beings. (Source: Vitaly Voinov in The Bible Translator 2012, p. 17ff. )
In Ngäbere the Hebrew that is translated in English as “cherub” is translated as “heavenly guard” (source: J. Loewen 1980, p. 107), in Nyamwezi as v’amalaika v’akelubi or “Cherubim-Angel” to add clarity, in Vidunda as “winged creature,” in Makonde as “winged creature from heaven” (source for this and two before: Pioneer Bible Translators, project-specific translation notes in Paratext), in Bura-Pabir as “good spirit with wings,” and in Northern Pashto it is either translated as “heavenly creature” (Afghan Pashto Bible, publ. 2023) or “winged creature” (Holy Bible in Pakistani [Yousafzai] Pashto, publ. 2020) (source for Bura-Pabir and Northern Pashto: Andy Warren-Rothlin).
The Greek and Hebrew hat is translated as “purple” in English is translated as “blue-red” in Ojitlán Chinantec (source: M. Larson in Notes on Translation 1970, p. 1ff.) and in Elhomwe (source: project-specific translation notes in Paratext). In Silimo it is translated with a local reference: “the colour of the wipegen berry” (source: Buzz and Myrna Maxey ).
“The Kasua people of Western Province have no word for the color purple. They have words for many other colors: black, red, white, yellow, green, and blue, but not for the color of royalty.
“About nine New Testament passages mention people placing a purple robe on Jesus. The Kasua translation team always wanted to use the word ‘red,’ or keyalo, to describe the robe. Tommy, one of the translation team helpers, disagreed because this is not historically accurate or signifies the royalty of Jesus.
“One of the main rules of translation is that the team must stick to the historical facts when they translate a passage. If they don’t, then how can the readers trust what they’re reading is true? Other questions about truth could bubble in the reader’s minds about the Scriptures. For this reason, Tommy was not willing to change the word purple. So the team hung up the problem, hoping to revisit it later with more inspiration.
“God did not disappoint.
“Years later, Tommy hiked with some of the men near their village. They saw a tree that possessed bulbous growths growing on the side of it like fruit. These growths were ‘the most beautiful color of purple I’d ever seen,’ explained Tommy.
“’What is the name of this tree?’ Tommy asked the men.
“’This is an Okani tree,’ they replied.
“Tommy suggested, ‘Why don’t you, in those passages where we’ve been struggling to translate the color purple, use ‘they put a robe on Jesus the color of the fruit of the Okani tree’?
“’Yeah. We know exactly what color that is,’ the men said enthusiastically.
“Everyone in their village would also visualize this phrase accurately, as the Okani tree is the only tree in that area that produces this kind of purple growth. So now, among the Kasua people, in his royal purple robe, Jesus is shown to be the king that he is.”
In Numbers 4:13, Gbaya uses the ideophone soi-soi to emphasize the purple color. Ideophones are a class of sound symbolic words expressing human sensation and soi-soi designates something that has a red or purple color, or a thing with a clear or clean appearance. (Source: Philip Noss)
The Hebrew, Ge’ez, and Greek that is translated as “tabernacle” in English is translated in San Blas Kuna as “house of prayer that can be carried.” (Source: Ronald Ross)
In Bandi it is translated as “holy sitting place.” The “sitting place for the Bandi is where you live.” Therefore the tabernacle is the place where God lived. (Source: Becky Grossmann in this newsletter )
In Vidunda it is translated as “God’s tent” (source: Pioneer Bible Translators, project-specific translation notes in Paratext) and in Tibetan as gur mchog (གུར་མཆོག) or “perfect tent” (source: gSungrab website )
In American Sign Language it is translated with with a sign for “tent” combined with a sign referring to the outer court surrounding the tent (see Exodus 27:9 and following). (Source: Ruth Anna Spooner, Ron Lawer)
“Tabernacle” in American Sign Language, source: Deaf Harbor
Flax Linum usitatissimum, from which linen cloth is made, was cultivated in the Middle East, including Canaan, at least as early as 5000 B.C. A document from Gezer (in Israel) from around King Saul’s time (1000 B.C.) refers to the cultivation of flax and states that flax and wool were the main materials for making cloth. According to Joshua 2:6, the Israelite spies were hidden under flax stalks by Rahab. Flax was grown extensively in Egypt and made into cloth and mats.
Pesheth and pishtah are probably the original Hebrew words for flax, if indeed the plant was domesticated in the Holy Land, as Zohary (Plants of the Bible. Cambridge University Press, 1982) proposes. They may be related to the word pashat, meaning “to strip off” or “to flay,” or to the word pasas, meaning “to disintegrate.” Pesheth and pishtah are used twenty times in the Old Testament, twice referring clearly to the plant itself (Exodus 9:31; Joshua 2:6). Other references are to the processed flax (Judges 15:14 et al.). A few cases refer to finished products, namely wicks (Isaiah 42:3 et al.), cords (Ezekiel 40:3), and items of clothing (Jeremiah 13:1 et al.).
It is likely that the Hebrews acquired the word shesh from the Egyptians during their sojourn in Egypt, since flax was cultivated there also. The Egyptian word for flax was shent (via shen-suten). Shesh is used thirty-eight times in the Old Testament: for the material that Pharaoh put on Joseph, for the Tabernacle curtains and hangings in Exodus, for the ephod, and for the priests’ tunics. The wise woman of Proverbs 31:22 wears it. In Ezekiel 16:10 et al. it is paired with silk, and in Ezekiel 27:7 “shesh from Egypt” is spoken of as material for the sails of ships.
Several references to linen use the Hebrew word bad. In Exodus 28:42 the priests’ underwear are made from bad, and it is used thereafter in Leviticus to describe various items of clothing—coat, breeches, girdle, and turban. It turns up again in Samuel’s and King David’s “ephods” and then again in Ezekiel and Daniel, where we see visions of “a man clothed in bad.”
Linen is referred by the Hebrew word buts in 1‑2 Chronicles, Esther, and Ezekiel, where the robes of the Temple choir, kings, and rich men are described.
The Old Testament has some references to the Hebrew word sadin (“linen garment”): Judges 14:12 (Samson promises them to his opponents), Proverbs 31:24 (the wise woman makes them), and Isaiah 3:23 (the rich women of Jerusalem wear them). The Septuagint uses the Greek word bussos or sindōn in these passages.
The Hebrew word ’etun occurs only in Proverbs 7:16, where it refers to a linen bedspread from Egypt.
In the New Testament there are three primary Greek words for linen: linon/linous, sindōn, and othonē/othonion. Linon is used to refer to garments of the angels in Revelation 15:6 as well as to the “smoldering wick” in Matthew 12:20. The synoptic Gospel writers refer to the linen cloth that Joseph and Nicodemus used to wrap Jesus’ body as a sindōn. Mark uses the same word to refer to the cloth that was worn by the unidentified young man at the time of Jesus’ arrest (Mark 14:51f.). John uses a different Greek word for Jesus’ burial cloths: othonion.
The rich man referred to in the Lazarus story (Luke 16:19) is clothed in “fine linen” (bussos). The Greek word bussos is the root word for bussinos, which refers to tunics, robes and turbans made from linen fabric (Revelation 18:12 et al.).
Flax is a little taller than a sesame plant, about a meter (3 feet) tall. Its leaves are narrow and the flowers are bright blue with five petals. The seed capsule contains oil that is used for cooking and also for thinning paint. After flax ripens, the plants are uprooted and the stalks are left to dry for a while. The stalks are then soaked, dried, and beaten to separate the fibers, which are then combed and woven into cloth.
Linen cloth was relatively costly in Israel, and being light and easy to dye it was highly valued. Their priests wore linen garments to combat sweating (see Ezekiel 44:18). They had to remove these holy garments when they left the Temple, “lest they communicate holiness to the people” (Ezekiel 44:19). The high esteem given to linen by the Jews is shown also by the fact that they used it for burying the dead, and we are told that the Dead Sea Scrolls were wrapped in linen cloths. However, the flax plant was special in other ways. The crushed stalks of flax plants were also used for making rope and lamp wicks. The seed was used for oil.
Today flax is raised more for the oil that comes from the seeds (called linseed oil) than for the fibers, although flax stalks are also made into special kinds of paper.
Metaphorical uses of flax are relatively few in the Bible, and all suggest the weakness of the material. In Judges 15:14 flax fiber is used as a simile for Samson’s fetters (they snapped like linen thread). Isaiah 42:3 says the Messiah will be gentle with weak people (“a dimly burning wick [pishtah] he will not quench”), in contrast to the typical iron-fisted tyrants of the day. Isaiah 43:17 describes the fate of the Babylonian enemies: they will be snuffed out “like a wick [pishtah].”
Linen cloth (or other cloth with a similar name) is surprisingly widespread. Cloth merchants in the translators’ area may know it under a trade language name, and if so, that can be used.In some places it is used only for burying people. In that case, if it is used in translation at all, the difference in culture should be explained in a footnote. Since linen is bleached white, a generic phrase such as “beautiful white cloth” can be considered in many places. In the three metaphorical passages mentioned above, an appropriate cultural image may be substituted, or an adverb expressing weakness or fragility.
Following are a number of back-translations as well as a sample translation for translators of Exodus 26:1:
Kupsabiny: “Someone make four expensive curtains and decorate them with things like cherubim using grey-blue, purple and red threads. They should be made in a skilled way.” (Source: Kupsabiny Back Translation)
Newari: “Make ten panels of fine linen cloths of blue purple and red color to make a covering for the Tent of Meeting. Let the cloth be embroidered with a pattern of cherubim with fine thread.” (Source: Newari Back Translation)
Hiligaynon: “‘(You sg) have- a Place-of-Worship Tent -made. The things-to-be-used to do this are ten pieces of embroidered linen which have blue, purple, and red wool. And have-(someone)-embroider this with a fine/pretty outline/figure of cherubim.” (Source: Hiligaynon Back Translation)
Bariai: “God spoke again like this, ‘You (pl.) must make my shelter from ten good cloths. And decorate those cloths with needle threads which are red and somewhat red and blue. Speak to a man of artwork for him to sew images of kerubim onto those cloths.” (Source: Bariai Back Translation)
Opo: “And God also say Moses «Covering of Dwelling-Tent-of-God, you make it like this: you make flax cloth which be 10 (ten) which be soft. And a skillful man, let him sew thread which be purple with red ones with green/blue ones, let him sew it there [so that] it resemble Cherub.” (Source: Opo Back Translation)
English: “‘Tell the people to make the Sacred Tent using ten long strips of fine linen. They must take blue, purple, and red thread (OR, weave the strips from blue, purple, and red thread), and a skilled craftsman must embroider these strips with designs that represent the winged creatures that are above the chest.” (Source: Translation for Translators)
Moreover is simply a translation of the common conjunction waw, but the word order indicates a change in focus: “And the tabernacle you [singular] shall make [with] ten curtains.” Since this is the first verse in a new section of discourse, it may be helpful to indicate who is speaking; for example, “The LORD said, ‘Make the….’ ” The with is added, but Good News Translation‘s “out of” may be clearer. With this verse, however, Good News Translation introduces a new term, “the Tent of my presence,” in addition to “the sacred Tent,” both of which are used to translate the word mishkan. This kind of duplication, or double translation, is unnecessary and is not recommended. (See the introductory remarks at the beginning of this section.) This later becomes confusing in Good News Translation when the distinction between mishkan, ʾohel, and ʾohel moʿed needs to be made. All three terms are often rendered in Good News Translation as “the Tent of the LORD’s presence.” (See the discussion at 33.7 and in the introduction to 33.7-11.) Various ways to render tabernacle are discussed at 25.8-9. Good News Translation adds the word “interior” to make clear that the curtains described in verses 1-6 will form the inner layer of the tabernacle, over which three other layers will be placed.
Ten curtains may be understood as “ten pieces” (Good News Translation) or “ten sheets” (New American Bible, New Jerusalem Bible). New Jewish Publication Society’s Tanakh has “ten strips of cloth.” The Hebrew word always refers to tent fabric, or material used in making tents. Tents were usually made from goats’ hair (see verse 7), but this first layer of the tabernacle is to be made of fine twined linen. (See the discussion at 25.4.) New Revised Standard Version has “fine twisted linen,” since the word for twined refers to twisting the thread in spinning.
And blue and purple and scarlet stuff is identical with 25.4. (See the discussion there). Here again the word stuff is not in the Hebrew, so New Revised Standard Version has “blue, purple, and crimson yarns.” Good News Translation and Contemporary English Version‘s use of “wool” introduces a different kind of fabric, and it is confusing to think of “fine linen woven with blue, purple, and red wool.” It is possible that woolen thread of the different colors was used for the embroidery, but this is not clear in the text. (The mixing of linen and wool is actually forbidden in Deut 22.11, but there it refers to clothing. See also Lev 19.19.) There are thus two possible alternative models:
• Make [or, Have them make] the sacred tent out of ten pieces of the finest linen. Weave these out of blue, purple, and crimson thread. Also have them embroider….
• Make the sacred tent [or, tent where I live] out of ten pieces of the finest linen cloth. Have them take blue, purple, and crimson wool thread and embroider….
With cherubim skilfully worked you shall make them refers to the “winged creatures” (Good News Translation, Contemporary English Version) discussed at 25.18. Skilfully worked is literally “work of reflection,” or “something done by a thinker.” This may refer either to a specialized form of weaving or to the work of a “skilled craftsman” (New International Version). The text, however, seems to focus on the material rather than on the craftsman. So Good News Translation has “Embroider them with figures of winged creatures,” but New Jerusalem Bible is better, “You will have them embroidered.” This allows for Moses to have the work done by skilled craftsmen rather than doing it himself (as described in 36.8). One may also say “You must have people embroider them.” “Embroider” may also be expressed as “use a needle to sew” or “make … with a needle.”
Alternative translation models for this verse are:
• Make [or, Have them make] the sacred tent [or, tent where I live] out of ten pieces of the finest linen cloth. Weave these out of blue, purple, and crimson thread. Also have them take needles and sew [or, embroider] figures of cherubs into the cloth.
• … Also have them make [or, spin] blue, purple, and crimson thread out of wool and use it to embroider figures of cherubs into the linen cloth.
Quoted with permission from Osborn, Noel D. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on Exodus. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 1999. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .
Leave a Reply
You must be logged in to post a comment.