2And the beast that I saw was like a leopard, its feet were like a bear’s, and its mouth was like a lion’s mouth. And the dragon gave it his power and his throne and great authority.
For the Greek that is translated as “dragon” in English, the Bawm Chin translation uses a term referring to a mythical serpent (source: David Clark), Sranan Tongo uses the local bigi kaiman or “big Caiman” (source: Jabini 2015, p. 33), Dan uses “big snake (source: Don Slager), and Mandarin Chinese translations typically use lóng 龙/龍 which brings it in conflict with Chinese culture where lóng has a highly positive connotation.
Simon Wong explains: “The translation process often involves finding the lexical equivalent in the receptor language for words or expressions in the source language. If finding the equivalent of concrete objects from ancient times is challenging, identifying the equivalent for mythical (or legendary) figures is nearly unimaginable. In the English-speaking world (or perhaps in most European contexts), what is represented by the English word ‘dragon’ is often portrayed as monsters to be tamed or overcome, but in Chinese culture, lóng 龙 (traditional script: 龍), the commonly accepted Chinese equivalent of ‘dragon’ always represents a cultural mascot of good fortune. It is the highest-ranking animal in the Chinese animal hierarchy; it is even surmised that the pronunciation represents the sound of thunder. Dragons were also identified with the emperors of China in the old days; ordinary people were not allowed to use any portrait of the dragon. It is only a relatively recent expression that the Chinese are called ‘people of the dragon’ and that its portrait is popularized. Many East Asian deities and demigods have dragons as their personal mounts or companions.
“The author of Revelation used the Greek drakon / δράκων (which is translated into English as ‘dragon’) to represent the mythical Satanic incarnation coming down from heaven. The most popular Protestant Chinese version (Chinese Union Version, published in 1919) renders this Greek word δράκων as lóng 龙/龍. This rendering represents a long tradition that can be traced back to the earliest Protestant translations of the 1820s. Since then, almost all Protestant Chinese versions have followed this tradition of using lóng 龙/龍, a rendering that inevitably creates a cultural crash with Chinese culture. Many new converts are asked to demolish all vases or artifacts portraying this mythical figure, and some people are even asked to have their name changed if the character lóng 龙/龍 is found in their names. While modern Catholic Chinese translations also use the same rendering, the first Catholic Chinese version (unpublished) which included the Book of Revelation (1813, by the French Jesuit Loui Antoine de Poirot) used the term mǎng 蟒 (meaning ‘python’). The python’s fierce nature carries a negative connotation that is far more appropriate and indeed conveys the meaning of the Greek word far more adequately than lóng 龙/龍. In the Septuagint (the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible with the Pentateuch completed in mid-3rd century B.C.), it was said that, when Moses and Pharoah’s priests threw their staffs on the ground, the staffs became drakon / δράκων (Exodus 7:9, 10, 12). This Greek word was used to translate the Hebrew word ‘tanin,’ unmistakenly understood to be ‘serpent.’ Some recent Chinese translations rightly render it as móshé 魔蛇 (‘evil serpent’). As a translation strategy, it could also render δράκων phonetically dùlāgēn 杜拉根 (see Revelation 12:3 footnote in the Revised Chinese Union Version, publ. 2010).
“The different translation strategies that Protestant and Catholics employ shows the greater Protestant emphasis on the conversion experience. By using lóng 龙/龍 for δράκων, Protestant translators emphasized the separation from the ‘old self’ (old lives), which in this case encompassed an element of Chinese culture that was often idolatrized. Catholic missionaries (especially the Jesuits), on the other hand, had a far more positive appreciation of Chinese culture that enabled them to see no such necessary point of demarcation from the recipient’s cultural context.”
《启示录》作者用希腊文δράκων一词来描述撒但成为肉身，从天上坠落下来（启12:3，4，7，9，13，16，17，13:2，4）。最重要的新教中文圣经译本《和合本》（1919年出版）将这个希腊文词语译作"龙"。事实上，这个译法由来已久，可以追溯到马礼逊（Robert Morrison）在1823年发行的译本，或者馬殊曼和拉瑟（Marshman-Lassar）在1822年完成的译本。几乎所有新教中文圣经译本都沿用了"龙"的译法，这不可避免地与中国文化产生了冲突。有保守的传道人会要求初归信的人丢掉所有以这个神秘形象为图案的花瓶或艺术品，如果他们的名字中有"龙"字，传道人甚至会要求他们改名。第一本包含《启示录》的天主教中文圣经译本由法国耶稣会会士賀清泰神父（Louis Antoine de Poirot）在1813年译成，他采用了"蟒"的译法（并非完整，亦未有出版），然而现代的天主教中文圣经译本仍译作"龙"。"蟒"的凶猛体现出原词带负面形象的涵义。这种译法确实比"龙"合适的多，更加全面地表达出希腊文的意思。《七十士译本》是《希伯来圣经》的希腊文译本，其中的摩西五经于主前三世纪中翻译完成；这个译本叙述摩西与埃及术士争斗的故事时，说他们的杖变成了δράκων（出7:9，10，12）。《七十士译本》用这个希腊文词语来翻译希伯来文tanin，而tanin毫无疑问是指"蛇"。近期有中文译本将希腊文δράκων译作"魔蛇"，这是很好的翻译。另外，δράκων也可以音译为"杜拉根"。参《和合本修订版》关于《启示录》12:3的脚注。
The Hebrew and Greek that is translated as “bear” in English is translated in Mungaka and Berom as “leopard” since bears are not known in that culture (see also wolf) (source: Nama 1990 and Andy Warren-Rothlin).
In Vidunda and Kutu it is translated as “lion,” in Kwere as “cheetah” (in Proverbs 17:12) (Source: Pioneer Bible Translators, project-specific translation notes in Paratext) and in Idakho-Isukha-Tiriki as “jackal” (source: Andy Warren-Rothlin).
Michel Kenmogne comments on this and comparable translations (in Noss 2007, p. 378 ff.): “Some exegetical solutions adopted by missionary translations may have been acceptable during that time frame, but weighed against today’s translation theory and procedures, they appear quite outdated and even questionable. For example, Atangana Nama approvingly mentions the translation into Mungaka of terms like ‘deer’ as ‘leopard’, ‘camel’ as ‘elephant’, and ‘wheat’ as ‘maize,’ where the target language has no direct equivalent to the source text. These pre-Nida translation options, now known as adaptations, would be declared unacceptable in modern practice, since they misrepresent the historico-zoological and agricultural realities in the Bible. Nowadays it is considered better to give a generalized term, like ‘grain,’ and where necessary specify ‘a grain called wheat,’ than to give an incorrect equivalence. Unknown animals such as bears, can be called ‘fierce animals,’ especially if the reference is a non-historical context.”
The bear that was known in biblical times was the Syrian Brown Bear ursus arctos syriacus. The same word in Hebrew refers to either male or female bears, and it is the gender of the associated words that will indicate the gender of the bear in a specific context.
The Syrian brown bear is very large, similar to the North American Grizzly Bear ursus horribilis, or the European Brown Bear ursus arctos. It has a rather doglike face. It has thick fur, and walks on all fours, but may stand up on its back legs to get a better view. When it stands up like this it may be 2 meters (6 feet) or more tall. It may also weigh over two hundred kilos (440 pounds). Like many other bears Syrian brown bears accumulate fat by gorging themselves in the summer and autumn, and then they sleep through the winter in caves or holes they have dug under logs.
Although its basic food is roots, berries, wild fruit, mice, and lizards, occasionally a rogue bear might kill small livestock. Bears are not able to see very well, and this means that often a person gets quite close to a bear before either one sees the other. The bear is then likely to attack, striking out with its strong digging claws and perhaps biting. Female bears are very protective of their young.
In the Bible, bears and lions are often mentioned together, both being symbols of fierce strength and danger. The female bear in particular was viewed as dangerous, especially if she had young.
For translators in the Northern Hemisphere, finding a word for bear is not usually too difficult. The best choice is a generic word for “bear” rather than the specific word for a type of bear. If a specific word must be used, the word for the grizzly bear is suitable in North America, while in Europe and parts of Asia the European brown bear is the closest relative to the Syrian brown bear. In parts of mainland Asia where the brown bear is not known, the word for the Himalayan Black Bear selenarctos thibetanus is the best choice. The word for the sloth bear of India and Ceylon, or for the sun and moon bears of Malaysia, Indo-China, and Indonesia should be avoided, since these bears have small teeth and are not dangerous.
In the higher parts of South America the word for the Spectacled Bear tremarctos ornatus can be used if this animal is known to the readers. For translators elsewhere in the Southern Hemisphere, the problem is more difficult, especially in areas where bears are not known. The use of the name for a local animal is seldom successful, since the more dangerous local animals are usually too different from bears. The only alternative is to transliterate the name from the dominant major or trade language of the area, or from the original biblical language, with a glossary item saying something like: “A bear is a large dangerous animal with big claws and teeth.”
Following are a number of back-translations of Revelation 13:2:
Uma: “I saw that animal, its appearance was like the animal called a leopard [Indonesian: macan tutul], but its feet were like the feet of a bear [Indonesian: beruang], and its snout/mouth like the snout of a lion [Indonesian: singa]. The dragon gave the animal his own strength, with his government, and his very big power/authority.” (Source: Uma Back Translation)
Yakan: “This creature that I saw had a face like a wild-cat (katuli’) and was very big. His feet were like the feet of the animal bear (banuwang) his claws were big and sharp and his mouth was like a lion’s mouth. The dragon gave his power to this creature and he was given authority to rule on the earth.” (Source: Yakan Back Translation)
Western Bukidnon Manobo: “That beast which I saw was like a leopard, and his feet were like the feet of a bear, and his mouth was like the mouth of a lion. The power of the dragon and his authority to rule and his power to control, he gave to the beast.” (Source: Western Bukidnon Manobo Back Translation)
Kankanaey: “His appearance was like a leopard (Eng. loan), but his feet were like the feet of a bear (Eng. loan) and his mouth was like the mouth of a lion (layon). The dragon, he gave to the fearsome animal his power and his great (lit. high) authority to rule.” (Source: Kankanaey Back Translation)
Tagbanwa: “Like a big wild-cat called leopardo was the body of that monster which I saw. His feet/legs and claws were like those of a wild animal of the forest called oso. His mouth was like the mouth of a leon. The dragon gave all his authority and his kingship to that monster, including his far-from-ordinary means/ability.” (Source: Tagbanwa Back Translation)
Tenango Otomi: “I saw that this terrible animal appeared like a tiger. It had feet like the feet of a bear. Its mouth was like the mouth of a lion. The other terrible animal which was red, that is the devil, caused that the terrible animal which came out of the sea have his power. He gave him his chair to sit on, to rule over those whom the devil ruled.” (Source: Tenango Otomi Back Translation)
The Greek, Aramaic and Hebrew that is translated as “leopard” in English was translated in the 1900 Kalaallisut (Greenlandic) translation (a newer version was published in 2000) as milakulâĸ or “one with small spots.” “Milakulâĸ (modern milakulaaq), is derived from the base milak ‘spot, freckle’ followed by a nominalizing suffix with a diminutive sense. This choice provides readers with a vivid description of the animal in question, which would allow them to visualize its appearance even though it is not a feature of the local environment.’” (Source: Lily Kahn & Riitta-Liisa Valijärvi in The Bible Translator 2019, p. 125ff.)
In passages where speed is in the focus (such as Habakkuk 1:8, the Kalanga translation uses “cheetah.” (Source: project-specific notes in Paratext)
Both leopards Panthera pardus and Cheetahs Acinonyx jubatus were fairly common in Israel until the twentieth century. Leopards lived both in the mountains and in the thick undergrowth found in many wadis and along the Jordan Valley. A very few still live in the Negev and in the wadis along the Dead Sea. Cheetahs lived in the semi-desert plains of Egypt the land of Israel Arabia and Syria. They were trained and used in hunting in both the Middle East and Egypt hundreds of years before Christ. They have now been hunted to extinction in these areas.
In the Old Testament it is likely that the one Hebrew word namer and the Aramaic word nemar were used for both animals. The Greek word pardalis means leopard.
Leopards are the most widely distributed of all the great cats. They are found throughout tropical mainland Asia and Africa. They are about 2 meters (6 feet) in length and are a yellowish brown color with black spots arranged in rosettes all over the body and tail. These spots make it very easy for a leopard to blend in with patches of shade and sunlight in or under bushes and trees. They are extremely agile, and this agility and their natural camouflage are used to the full in their hunting methods. They stalk gazelles, antelope, or deer (occasionally goats or sheep) until they are within ten or fifteen meters (30-50 feet) or less. They then break cover and leap onto their prey. They have a slightly different strategy when hunting monkeys and baboons. They drive them to the extreme ends of branches by climbing after them, and when the monkey or baboon finally drops from the tree, the leopard leaps after it and catches it on the ground.
Once a leopard has killed an animal, it carries it into a tree or onto a high rock to eat, possibly to get away from hyenas. Once a leopard has satisfied its appetite, if there is still meat left on the carcass, it will leave the carcass in the fork of a branch and return to feed again later. The exception to this is when a female has cubs. She will then carry the kill to her cubs in a lair under rocks or a log, but she will still carry any leftover meat into a tree to store in the branches. Unlike lions and cheetahs, leopards do not chase their prey over long distances.
Leopards live and hunt alone, coming together only at mating time. Cubs stay with their mothers only until they can hunt on their own; they are usually completely on their own by the time they are one year old. A female leopard with cubs is very protective and extremely dangerous.
Occasionally a leopard will be born completely black (the so-called black panther). This is simply an ordinary leopard with a slight genetic abnormality known as melanism.
Cheetahs or hunting leopards as they are sometimes called are also spotted but are slightly smaller and have longer legs than leopards. They also have a vertical stripe across each eye. Unlike most other members of the cat family cheetahs cannot retract their claws. They are found throughout sub-Saharan Africa but their numbers are greatly reduced now. A few remain in South Asia where they were once plentiful.
Cheetahs live in small family groups and hunt together. They are extremely fast and rely on this speed in their hunting. They live in open grassland on plains and apart from the grass and low bushes there is often not much cover for them to use in stalking. They stalk their prey to within about fifty meters (55 yards) and then break cover and with a tremendous turn of speed chase the prey and attempt to catch it by the throat.
Leopards are often paired with lions in the biblical text and are thus a symbol of violent danger. In Habakkuk 1:8, however, the namer is a symbol of speed. This would fit the cheetah rather than the leopard.
Where leopards are not known, the word for jaguar, bobcat, puma, mountain lion, or tiger can be used. Elsewhere, a borrowed word or a transliteration will need to be used, taking the Hebrew or the dominant local language as the basis.
Among the English versions there seems to be a great deal of confusion and inconsistency in the translation of the various Hebrew words. This is due in large part to the fact that the English translators and the commentators who have guided them have had many mistaken ideas about lions and their behavior. To take Amos 3:4 as an example, Smalley and de Waard (A Handbook on Amos. New York, 1979), commenting on this verse and echoing many others, claim: “The lion’s roar in the first picture is the ferocious roar with which the lion attacks an animal he is going to kill and eat. When someone hears this roar, he knows that the lion has found his victim. In the second picture, however, it is the lion’s contented growl when he has dragged the food to his den.” (see here)
However, lions do not roar as they attack their prey, (in fact they kill very silently as a rule), and lions do not normally live in dens. Moreover, they do not growl contentedly when eating. Instead they growl and snarl at the other lions in the pride who are trying to share the meal.
Click or tap here for the rest of this entry in United Bible Societies’ All Creatures Great and Small: Living things in the Bible
In case there are readers who react by thinking that it is unlikely that unsophisticated ancient peoples would have known these details, it should be pointed out that unsophisticated people all over Africa, who live in areas where there are lions, are very familiar with lion behavior, and it is highly likely that the Jewish writers were too. The problem would seem to lie with the mistaken presuppositions of western biblical scholars, rather than those of the Jewish writers. Later in this section evidence will be given that the biblical writers were very familiar with lion behavior.
In a similar vein, it is likely that the many Hebrew words for lions each have a slightly different meaning from one another. A closer study of lions and their behavior may help to define these meanings.
In biblical times lions were found all over the Middle East, in Mesopotamia, in Egypt, and in the area of Sudan and Ethiopia called Cush.
The Greek word leōn and the Latin leo are general words for lion, while the Greek leontēdon means something like “fierce lion”.
In order to dispel many of the wrong presuppositions about lions that are current among biblical scholars, the description of this animal will be more detailed and extensive than for other animals in this book.
Lions Panthera leo are the largest of the great cats, often being about 2.8 meters (9 feet) from nose to tip of tail, standing as high as 1 meter (3 feet 3 inches) at the shoulder. However, the difference in size between lions and Bengal Tigers Panthera tigris is minimal. An adult lion is at least half a meter (20 inches) longer than a LeopardPanthera pardus and weighs twice as much, often reaching 250 kilograms (550 pounds) in weight; it is about 30 centimeters (1 foot) longer and 100 kilograms (220 pounds) heavier than a Jaguar Panthera onca or Mountain Lion (Puma) Puma concolor. Lions are a pale yellowish brown, but at birth they have spots that usually disappear gradually as they grow. Around the neck and shoulders of adult males grows a mane that is darker than the rest of their fur. Some even have black manes. Females and young males do not have manes and look very similar to each other.
Lions live in family groups called “prides”, which are made up of a dominant male lion (often called “the pride male”), plus a group of adult and sub adult females and young males. Males may leave the pride, and occasionally one or two females may go off with a wandering male, but normally the females continue in the pride and develop very close bonds with one another that last a lifetime. The dominant male will often make ritual attacks on the younger males of the pride, who roll over in submission rather than fight.
However, adult males from within and outside the pride challenge the dominant male and one another when a female is in season and will try to mate with her. This results in serious fights. If the dominant male is defeated from within the pride, he leaves the pride to wander alone, but the remainder of the pride remains intact. If a male from outside the pride takes over from the pride male, he usually chases away the other males, which then wander singly or in small groups of three or four. These wandering males will try to take over other prides or steal females from them. Ousted pride males, since they are alone and have no help in hunting, are often hungry, thin, undernourished, and dangerous.
About two or three days before a pregnant female is about to give birth to cubs, she digs a temporary den under a rock or fallen log and visits it with one or two of the other females. After she gives birth in the den, one of the other females will bring her meat from a kill. This enables the mother to remain with her newborn cubs continuously for the first week or two of their lives. The mother lioness moves the newborn cubs to a new den every three or four days. When the cubs are about two weeks old, the mother carries the cubs to where the other pride members are, and the pride makes their acquaintance by licking them. Thereafter the cubs belong to the pride and suckle on any lactating lioness that happens to be near.
Until they are old enough to hunt, cubs hide in thickets while the pride hunters do their work. At a later stage they accompany the hunting lions, but watch the killing from the sidelines. Finally the mother will help them kill small animals, until they are able to kill efficiently. Then they join the pride hunts.
A pride lives together in the same territory. Bushes and tree trunks are marked by spraying a liquid from a gland next to the anus. This marked territory is defended against intruding lions. The pride will come together at feeding time and remain together after a feed, but will scatter across the territory prior to hunting.
Lions utter a variety of sounds, and this should be borne in mind when translating Scripture passages that refer to the noises lions make. The Hebrew words are usually not very specific, but the context will indicate the type of noise intended.
Roaring is the loudest of the lion sounds and is usually produced by the males. It is believed to be territory-marking behavior and a means of maintaining pride solidarity. It is usually done before hunting begins and also functions to help the pride locate the positions of scattered members. This is important for hunting. Roaring consists of a long, very loud moaning sound followed by shorter rhythmic panting moans, which are repeated as many as twenty times, while becoming softer and softer. No two lions roar in exactly the same way, and they can be identified from their roars. Roaring is also a means by which wandering male lions make known their availability as potential mates. Hungry lions roar more frequently than well-fed ones, and this is an indication of how hungry they are.
Growling is a warning sound. It is a very deep rumbling repeated with each breath. It is intended to chase away strange lions or other potential enemies, such as leopards, hyenas, or humans. When a lion or lioness growls, it usually advances towards its enemy. If growling does not have the desired effect, it is replaced with snarling, which is similar to growling but is more intense and is produced with exposed teeth, the body in a low crouch, and ears laid back flat. This behavior is usually the prelude to an attack. When the attack is actually made on an enemy, a deep trembling moan is uttered, and the ensuing fight takes place with a lot of loud snarling and growling.
When lions are feeding together on one carcass, there is usually a lot of growling, snarling, and snapping among the feeding lions.
Other types of sound made by lions are:
woofing sounds when pride members meet after two or three days’ absence from each other. This sound is also used to call cubs from their hiding places;
drawn out yawning moans by females in heat and by both lions and lionesses when mating;
grunting sounds when chasing prey toward other lions waiting in ambush;
contented loud purring, much as cats do.
Hunting and feeding behavior: After lions have fed well, they rest and relax together for two or three days. Towards the end of this time some of the pride members will begin to move away from the others in the direction of places where prey animals are likely to be grazing. Then, before they begin to hunt, they signal their locations by roaring on and off for an hour or two. They then fall silent and begin to hunt in earnest. Hunting usually takes one of two forms. If there is good cover near the prey, two or three lionesses and young males will stalk the prey using the cover. When they get close enough, one or two will break cover and charge at the prey, while the others maneuver to cut off any escape.
If the terrain is more open, the lionesses and young males will take up ambush positions downwind of the prey animals. Adult males then move fairly openly into upwind positions. They then run toward the prey uttering loud grunts with each breath. With either method, at the first charge the lions try to disable the animal by seizing a leg or by biting the spine. Once they have slowed down the prey, one lion will seize the animal by the throat and suffocate it. Thus death is usually fairly slow and drawn out. If the animal is large, the kill takes a considerable amount of energy, and the lions rest, usually standing, before they begin to feed.
Single wandering male lions are at a great disadvantage in hunting and often go hungry. They thus roar more frequently than pride lions. They often begin to kill domestic animals and sometimes humans.
Among the lions present at the time of the kill, there is a type of seniority, with age being important. The most senior lion or lioness present will begin to feed, and this will be a signal for the others to join in. If the kill is large, they feed in relative silence, but if the prey is small, there is a lot of snarling, growling, and snapping. Whenever a dominant pride male arrives, however, the feeding lions withdraw and leave him to feed alone. A dominant male will sometimes allow an immature cub to feed with him but no mature lions. The pride members will only resume feeding when the dominant male is satisfied. Dominant males are very seldom involved in the chase or the kill. At most they make the charge that drives the prey towards lionesses and young males in ambush.
In the Bible the lion is a symbol of danger and destruction, often being paired with the bear. The lion is also a symbol of great political power and regal majesty.
Before discussing specific passages in detail, it is useful first to try and identify the various Hebrew words with likely lion types. If we examine the verbs and adjectives with which the Hebrew nouns co-occur, we find the following:
’Ari: This, the most frequently used word for lion, is associated with a very wide range of verbs in the Bible, including crouching in ambush, leaping, growling, roaring, killing, destroying, tearing prey to pieces, breaking bones, attacking, breaking from cover, scattering sheep, trampling, and standing on prey. The adjectives used with this noun include strong, destructive, brave, and hungry. From this evidence we can see that ’ari or its feminine form ’aryeh is the general word for lion or lioness.
’ari’el in 2 Samuel 23:20 and 1 Chronicles 11:22 literally means “lion of God” or “mighty lion”, but it is an idiom denoting a human hero or mighty warrior, not a lion.
’Aryeh: Although this is a feminine form, in English versions it is invariably translated as “lion”, because this form usually occurs in the Hebrew phrase gur ’aryeh, which is literally “a cub of lioness”, but which is more naturally translated as “lion cub” in English.
Beney shachats: This expression, which literally means “sons of pride”, occurs only once, in a poetic passage (Job 28:8) as the parallel of “lion” (shachal). Probably, besides having similar sounds, the two expressions both refer to lions. Only KJV reflects this in the translation.
Kefir: The verbs associated with this noun include kill, prowl, hunt, snarl, attack, break cover, tear prey to pieces, roar, and growl. The only adjective associated with the noun is “angry”. Translators often render this as “young lion”. Ezekiel 19:1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 seems to support an identification of kefir with a young male lion that is an efficient killer.
Laviy’: The verbs associated with this noun are growling, devouring, lying down, crouching, and raising cubs. The only descriptive phrase that co-occurs is big teeth. The usual JB rendering of this word as “lioness” seems well founded.
Layish: This noun occurs only three times. The verb phrase that co-occurs is “ dying from lack of prey”. The adjectives that co-occur are “stately in its walk”, and “strong”. The evidence would fit an interpretation such as “lion in its prime time” or “mighty lion”. The reference would seem to be to a dominant male lion or “pride male”. Versions that render this word as “old lion” in some contexts, seem to be slightly misleading.
Shachal: The verbs that co-occur are roaring, hunting, and tearing prey to pieces. Some scholars, using evidence from Assyrian and classical Arabic, believe that this Hebrew word is derived from an older Semitic root meaning “to roar” or “to produce a call”. All available evidence would seem to allow for the interpretation of shachal as “male lion”. It may possibly be a word for a wandering male lion rather than a male that is a member of a pride.
In some English versions of Maccabees the Greek word skumnos is incorrectly translated as “cub” or “whelp”. The context refers to this creature roaring, which lion cubs do not do. The word seems rather to refer to a virile young adult lion. It is better translated as lion in its prime.
In areas where lions are completely unknown, it is better to borrow a word from a dominant language or from Hebrew or Greek, rather than to try and find a local equivalent. This is because the biblical references to the behavior of lions are fairly specific, and if a word for a local animal is used, it will not fit the behavior mentioned in the text. This is especially so because the lion is the only great cat (apart from the cheetah) that lives and hunts in large family groups.
Some attempt should be made to maintain the slight differences in meaning of the various Hebrew words for lions, when the context requires this. This can often be done by using short, natural-sounding descriptive phrases. Often, however, in contexts where only one of the Hebrew words for lion is used, there is no need to maintain a difference, and a simple word for lion or lioness will suffice.
The most common Hebrew phrases used for the sounds lions make are sha’ag, (natan) qol, naham. When sha’ag is used in contexts of human vocal behavior, it indicates cries of pain or distress. In contexts of animal vocal behavior, however, it can signal pain and distress but can also be an aggressive sound and can be translated “bellow, roar, moan, snarl, growl” or sometimes “bark”. A similar Arabic word usually refers to the lowing of cattle or the bleating of goats. For lions English translators have consistently chosen “roar”, because of their mistaken preconception that a lion’s “roar” is an aggressive sound. In most contexts it is best interpreted as “growl” or “snarl”.
(Natan) qol, on the other hand, is a more general expression and can mean any sort of vocalization, from calling, to groaning or singing. English translators of Amos 3:4 have chosen “growl” and “cry out”. In this text this word is the parallel of sha’ag, so the reason for these interpretations is plain. However, a neutral translation, such as “make a sound”, would be equally valid. Of all the Hebrew expressions for lion sounds, this is the one most likely to mean roar, especially in contexts where the noun shachal occurs for “lion”, as for example in Job 4:10.
Naham means to moan in sorrow or pain when used of humans and is usually translated as to growl when used of animals.
Lion habitats and the meaning of ma‘on in the context of lions: Generally the word ma‘on means dwelling place, hiding place, or refuge. In one or two places it refers to a military refuge or fortress. When used of animals, it can mean “lair” (as for jackals), “hiding place”, “territory”, or simply “place where the animals are found”. The choice in translating this Hebrew word has been either “lair” or “den” in all English translations. This choice again seems to be related to the misconceptions about the behavior of lions. Lions do not usually live in dens or lairs, and it is better to translate ma‘on as “territory” or “place where lions live”.
And the beast that I saw: the relative clause that I saw is another example of needless redundancy in this book and may be omitted in translation in many languages.
A leopard: where this animal is unknown, it may be necessary to speak of a tiger, or a jaguar, or another of the large cats, with the exception of a lion, which also appears in this verse. In cultures where such large cats are unknown, a picture for the readers will be helpful.
Its feet were like a bear’s: instead of feet, “paws” is more naturally used of a bear (so New Jerusalem Bible). Where the bear is unknown, the text may have to describe the beast’s feet as big and hairy, with long, sharp claws. In such cultures a generic term for bear may be used; for example, “a wild animal named ‘bear.’ ” In such a case a picture and a description in the glossary should also be used. An alternative translation of this sentence is “Its feet were big and hairy, with long, sharp claws like those of the wild animal named ‘bear.’ ”
Its mouth was like a lion’s mouth: a large, powerful mouth, with sharp teeth.
The dragon gave his power and his throne and great authority: all three describe the vast authority of the dragon, which he confers on the beast. For power see 3.8; throne, 1.4; 2.13; authority, 2.26, where it is translated “powers.” If the statement that he gave … his throne might be taken literally, it will be necessary to express the idea of his power and his throne by “his royal power” or “his power as king (or, ruler).” Perhaps one may combine these three terms and say “The dragon let the beast have his own power and great authority to rule as king.”
The concept of the transfer of power and authority must not be stated in such terms as to imply that from then on the dragon had no power. So in some instances it may be helpful to say “The dragon shared with the beast his royal power and his great authority,” or “The dragon caused the beast to have as much royal power and great authority as he himself had,” or “The dragon let the beast have as much power to rule and great authority as….” From now on the beast is the dragon’s deputy, his lieutenant, with authority to speak and to act in the name of the dragon.
Quoted with permission from Bratcher, Robert G. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on The Revelation to John. (UBS Handbook Series). New York: UBS, 1993. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .
The beast I saw was like a leopard: In some languages it may not be necessary to repeat the phrase I saw. For example:
This beast looked like a leopard. (New Century Version)
leopard: A leopard is a big cat like a jaguar, tiger, or panther, but smaller. It has tan skin with black spots. They are about 1.5 meters (5 feet) long, excluding the tail. They weigh between 40 and 70 kilograms (90–150 pounds). They eat other animals.
In some languages people are not familiar with leopards. If that is true in your language, you may want to:
• Use the major language word for leopard and perhaps add a descriptive word or phrase. For example:
⌊fierce⌋ leopard/jaguar
• Describe a leopard. For example:
a fierce animal ⌊called a leopard⌋ -or-
a spotted puma/panther/tiger -or-
a large, fierce cat ⌊called a leopard⌋
But using the word “cat” should not imply that it is about the size of a house cat.
13:2b
with the feet of a bear: A bear’s foot is big and hairy with long claws.
In some languages people are not familiar with bears. If that is true in your language, you may want to:
• Add a description of the feet. For example:
⌊big, hairy feet with long claws⌋ like those of a bear
• Describe the feet without referring to a bear. For example:
big, hairy feet with long claws
Then you may want to indicate the literal words in a footnote, using the major language word for bear. For example:
Literally: “feet like bear’s feet.” -or-
Literally: “feet like bear’s feet.” A bear’s foot is big and hairy with long claws.
feet: In some languages it is more natural to use a word that refers to the feet of animals. For example:
paws (New Jerusalem Bible)
13:2c
the mouth of a lion: A lion has a large mouth with sharp teeth. In some languages people are not familiar with lions. If that is true in your language, you may want to:
• Add a description of the mouth. For example:
⌊large⌋ mouth ⌊with sharp teeth⌋ like that of a lion
• Describe the mouth without referring to a lion. For example:
large mouth with sharp teeth
You may want to explain the literal words in a footnote, using the major language word for lion. For example:
Literally: “a mouth like a lion’s mouth.” -or-
Literally: “a mouth like a lion’s mouth.” A lion has a large mouth with sharp teeth.
13:2d
And the dragon gave the beast his power and his throne and great authority: The dragon shared his power, throne, and authority with the beast. For example:
The dragon gave the beast his own power, his throne, and his vast authority (Good News Translation)
power: This word refers to the ability to do something. The dragon was strong and powerful. He caused the beast to become strong and powerful too.
throne: This word refers to the official chair of a king. When the king is seated on his throne, he rules over his people and his country. Therefore, the throne is a symbol for authority to rule. The dragon ruled as king, and he caused the beast to rule also. Other ways to translate this word are:
chair of ruling people -or-
leader’s place to rule
See how you translated this word at 1:4.
authority: This word refers to having the right and power to control or rule over someone or something. Here the word is general. The dragon had the right and power to do as he wanted. He shared this right and power with the beast.
Living Water is produced for the Bible translation movement in association with Lutheran Bible Translators. Lyrics derived from the ESV® Bible (The Holy Bible, English Standard Version®).
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