10and the boundary circles west of Baalah to Mount Seir, passes along to the northern slope of Mount Jearim (that is, Chesalon), and goes down to Beth-shemesh, and passes along by Timnah;
The various Greek, Aramaic, Ge’ez, and Latin and Hebrew terms that are translated as “sea,” “ocean,” or “lake” in English are all translated in Chichewa with one term: nyanja. Malawi, where Chichewa is spoken, has a lot of lakes but does not share a border with the ocean (source: Mawu a Mulungu mu Chichewa Chalero Back Translation). Likewise, in Toposa all the different bodies of water are all called by one term as well: nya-name̥ (source: Schröder 2026, p. 101).
In Malagasy culture, the sea is perceived as sacred because it was a path taken by the ancestors. That is why the Malagasy word for the “sea” is ranomasina, which literally means “the sacred water.” The word masina actually has two different meanings: “salted” and “sacred/holy.” Salt is used for the conservation of some foods, such as meat or fish, that are to be set aside for later use. In this sense, the Malagasy phrase for “Holy Spirit” has the literal meaning of “Salted Spirit.” (Source: Brigitte Rabarijaona in The Bible Translator 2022, p. 103ff.)
“Sea” (or: “ocean”) is translated in Tepeuxila Cuicatec as “water land” and in Xicotepec De Juárez Totonac as “very big lake.” (Source: Viola Waterhouse in Notes on Translation August 1966, p. 86ff.)
According to Anne Garber Kompaoré (in Le Sycomore 3/2009, p. 34ff. ), there are 4 ways to identify cardinal directions:
1. celestial bodies, especially the sun and certain stars
2. geographical landmarks, for example a mountain, sea, or river (depending on its position or the direction in which the water flows) etc.
3. climatic phenomena, such as the wind and the direction from which rain comes
4. bodily reference points, especially front, back, left, and right, in relation to celestial bodies or geographical landmarks
Following are examples of how these are practically implemented by various languages: (click or tap here to see the rest of this insight)
Celestial Bodies
East and west are often translated by the rising and the setting of the sun (note that the origin of English and other Indo-European languages is “dawn” for “east” and “evening” [i.e. sun-down] for “west”):
Maan: “where the sun comes up” and “where the sun goes down” (source: Don Slager)
Kankanaey: “from the coming-out of the sun “and “going-away of the sun” (source: Kankanaey back-translation)
Northern Emberá: “from where the sun comes up” and “from where the sun falls” (source: Charles Mortensen)
Ejamat “the side where the sun comes from” and “the side where it sets” (source: David Frank in this blog post )
Tzeltal: “where the sun pours-out” (west) (source: Reiling / Swellengrebel)
Northern Ngbandi: “the sun behind the chief’s house” (east — the chief lives traditionally at the eastern side of the village, therefore he does not get the sunlight into his eyes) and “under the sun” (west)
Northwestern Dinka: “earth behind” (east — the place behind the earth, i.e. the area where the sun rises)
Jula: “salt village” (north — because salt comes from the north, from the Sahara Desert) and “kola village” (south — since kola comes from the coastal region to the south) (source: Garber Kompaoré)
Matumbi: “toward the beach” (East) (the coast is in the eastern direction in Matumbi-speaking areas), “north” and “south” can be defined as above or below another place (Source: Pioneer Bible Translators, project-specific notes in Paratext)
Acoli: “right” (of the local White Nile) (north) and “left” (of the White Nile) (south)
Zande: “interior (dry) land” (east); “place-inside-country” (north / south) — Zande, like a number of other languages, including Matengo and Hehe, traditionally only has three cardinal directions.
Belanda Bor: “lower place” (north) and “higher place” (south)
Turkana: “(up)stream” (north) and (down)stream (south)
Mono (DRC): “water place” (south) (source for this and five above: Mietzner / Pasch)
Climatic Phenomena
Shilluk: “opening westwind” (north) and “opening eastwind” (south)
Swahili used to have six directions. In reducing them to four, kusini and kaskazini which used to refer to south-west and north east respectively (the directions from where the two monsoons blow) have become the terms for “south” and north.” (source for this and one above: Mietzner / Pasch)
Bodily Reference Points
Nuer / Burun: “face” and “sun face” respectively (both: east)
Kalenjin: “eye sun” (east) (this and the one above indicate that the sun is “facing” the spectator from its position in the east:
Shilluk: doesn’t use a fixed position of the speaker, instead it has “eye sun morning” for east and “eye sun evening” for west
Mono (DRC): “foot-sun” (east — the start of the sun’s journey)
Burun: “sun leg” (west — the end of the sun’s journey)
Bari: “back” (north — when people are facing south, north is at their back) (source for this and above: Mietzner / Pasch)
Northern Emberá “the looking [left] hand” (north) and “the real [right] hand” (south) (source: Charles Mortensen)
Morelos Nahuatl: “from above” (north) and “from below” (south) (source: Viola Waterhouse in Notes on Translation August 1966, p. 86ff.)
When all four directions are mentioned, translators tend to avoid listing the four, sometimes verbose terms, and chose solutions like “all directions” (such as in Maan or Manya (source: Don Slager). Yakan has “from the four corners of the earth” (source: Yakan back-translation) and Western Bukidnon Manobo “from the four directions here on the earth” (source: Western Bukidnon Manobo back-translation).
The Hebrew text that gives instructions where to place items in the tabernacle with the help of cardinal directions (north and south) had to be approached in the Bambam translation specific to spacial concepts of that culture. Phil Campbell explains: “There are no words in Bambam for north and south. In Exodus 26:35, God instructs that the table is to be placed on the north side and the lamp on the south side inside the tabernacle. The team wants to use right and left to tell where the lamp and table are located. In many languages we would say that the table is on the right and the lampstand is on the left based on the view of someone entering the tabernacle. However, that is not how Bambam people view it. They view the placement of things and rooms in a building according to the orientation of someone standing inside the building facing the front of the building. So that means the table is on the left side and the lampstand is on the right side.”
Following are a number of back-translations as well as a sample translation for translators of Joshua 15:10:
Kupsabiny: “It leaned to the west of Baalah and went to the hills of Seir and passed by to the north of the mountain of Jearim (that is Chesalon). After that, it went down to Beth-shemesh and passed by Timnah.” (Source: Kupsabiny Back Translation)
Newari: “From there it turns from Baalah towards the west and goes to Mount Seir, and goes down to Beth-shemesh by way of the north side of Mount Jearim, also called Chesalon, it arrives at Timnah.” (Source: Newari Back Translation)
Hiligaynon: “and turning/curving to the northern side of Baala going-toward the Mountain of Seir. Then this goes-down to the northern slope of the Mountain of Jearim (which is the Kesalon), goes-toward Bet Shemesh and passes-through Timna.” (Source: Hiligaynon Back Translation)
English: “Then the border extended further west to Seir Mountain. Then it continued southwest along the north side of Jearim Mountain, which is also named Kesalon, to Beth-Shemesh city. From there it extended northwest past Timnah city,” (Source: Translation for Translators)
If the model of Good News Translation is being followed, then some attention should be given to the advisability of beginning a new sentence somewhere in this verse. In fact, it is possible that verse 10 may well be broken into two or more sentences. The hill country of Edom, as elsewhere in Good News Translation, translates “Mount Seir” (Revised Standard Version).
The parenthetical statement (or Chesalon) may be handled similarly to that of verse 9. Both Beth Shemesh and Timnah are cities, and it would be helpful to identify them as such in translation.
Quoted with permission from Bratcher, Robert G. and Newman, Barclay M. A Handbook on Joshua. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 1983. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .
The border curled westward from Baalah to Mount Seir: The clause curled westward from Baalah to Mount Seir indicates that the border line was not straight. It went on a curve as it went westward to Mount Seir.
Mount Seir: The location of this mountain is uncertain. It may be a mountain ridge west of Kiriath-jearim and north of Chesalon, about eleven miles west of Jerusalem.
Here are some other ways to translate this part of the verse:
The border then curved to the west of the town of Baalah to Mount Seir -or-
The border went in a curve west from Baalah to Seir Mountain
15:10b
ran along the northern slope of Mount Jearim (that is, Chesalon): The phrase the northern slope of Mount Jearim refers to the northern ridge of Mount Jearim.
Mount Jearim (that is, Chesalon):Mount Jearim was one of the low hills west of Jerusalem.
There is an interpretation issue here. There are two ways to understand the relationship between Chesalon and Mount Jearim.
(1) Chesalon is another name for Mount Jearim. For example, the English Standard Version says:
Mount Jearim (that is Chesalon)
(Berean Standard Bible, English Standard Version, Revised Standard Version, NET Bible, New International Version, God’s Word, Tanakh: The Holy Scriptures, Good News Translation, King James Version)
(2) Chesalon is the name of a town. For example:
the town of Kesalon on the northern slope of Mount Jearim (New Living Translation (2004))
(New Living Translation (2004), Contemporary English Version)
It is recommended that you follow interpretation (1). This is followed by most English versions.
Chesalon: Here are some ways that the English versions spell this word:
Chesalon (Berean Standard Bible, English Standard Version, Revised Standard Version, God’s Word, Good News Translation, Contemporary English Version, New American Bible, Revised Edition, Tanakh: The Holy Scriptures, King James Version) -or-
Kesalon (New International Version, NET Bible, New Living Translation (2004))
Here are some other ways to translate this part of the verse:
The border continued to the northern side of Mount Jearim (also called Mount Chesalon) -or-
Then the border went down along the northern ridge of Mount Jearim (which is also called Mount Chesalon)
15:10c
went down to Beth-shemesh, and crossed to Timnah: Here are some other ways to translate this part of the verse:
The border descended to the town of Beth-shemesh and went on to the town of Timnah -or-
It continued going down ⌊southwest⌋ to Beth-shemesh and then ⌊northwest⌋ to Timnah
crossed to Timnah: There is an interpretation issue here:
(1) The border goes to the town of Timnah. For example:
and on to Timnah (God’s Word)
(Berean Standard Bible, God’s Word, New International Version, NET Bible, New American Bible, Revised Edition, Tanakh: The Holy Scriptures, Contemporary English Version, New Living Translation (2004), King James Version)
(2) The border passes by the town of Timnah. For example:
passes along by Timnah (English Standard Version)
(English Standard Version, Revised Standard Version, Good News Translation)
It is recommended that you follow option (1). This is the option taken by most English versions. However, the Hebrew grammar can be understood either way, and probably both are true.
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