cardinal directions

The cardinal directions “east” and “west” are easy to translate into Maan here since the language uses “where the sun comes up” and “where the sun goes down.” For “north” the translator had “facing toward the sun rising to the left,” and for “south” she had “facing toward the sun rising to the right.” So the listener had to think hard before knowing what direction was in view when translating “to the north and south, to the east and west.” So, in case all four directions are mentioned, it was shortened by saying simply “all directions.” (Source: Don Slager) Likewise, Yakan has “from the four corners of the earth” (source: Yakan back-translation) or Western Bukidnon Manobo “from the four directions here on the earth” (source: Western Bukidnon Manobo back-translation).

Kankanaey is “from the coming-out and the going-away of the sun and the north and the south” (source: Kankanaey back-translation), Northern Emberá “from where the sun comes up, from where it falls, from the looking [left] hand, from the real [right] hand” (source: Charles Mortensen), Amele “from the direction of the sun going up, from the direction of the sun going down, from the north and from the south” (source: John Roberts), Ejamat “look up to see the side where the sun comes from, and the side where it sets, and look on your right side, and on your left” (source: David Frank in this blog post ).

In Lamba, only umutulesuŵa, “where the sun rises” and imbonsi, “where the sun sets” were available as cardinal directions that were not tied to the local area of language speakers (“north” is kumausi — “to the Aushi country” — and “south” kumalenje — “to the Lenje country”). So “north” and “south” were introduced as loanwords, nofu and saufu respectively. The whole phrase is kunofu nakusaufu nakumutulesuŵa nakumbonsi. (Source C. M. Doke in The Bible Translator 1958, p. 57ff. )

“West” is translated in Tzeltal as “where the sun pours-out” and in Kele as “down-river” (source: Reiling / Swellengrebel).

In Morelos Nahuatl, “north” is translated as “from above” and “south” as “from below.” (Source: Viola Waterhouse in Notes on Translation August 1966, p. 86ff.)

In Matumbi cardinal directions are defined as in relation to another place. “East” for instance typically is “toward the beach” since the coast is in the eastern direction in Matumbi-speaking areas. “North” and “south” can be defined as above or below another place. (Source: Pioneer Bible Translators, project-specific notes in Paratext)

The Hebrew text that gives instructions where to place items in the tabernacle with the help of cardinal directions (north and south) had to be approached in the Bambam translation specific to spacial concepts of that culture.

Phil Campbell explains: “There are no words in Bambam for north and south. In Exodus 26:35, God instructs that the table is to be placed on the north side and the lamp on the south side inside the tabernacle. The team wants to use right and left to tell where the lamp and table are located. In many languages we would say that the table is on the right and the lampstand is on the left based on the view of someone entering the tabernacle. However, that is not how Bambam people view it. They view the placement of things and rooms in a building according to the orientation of someone standing inside the building facing the front of the building. So that means the table is on the left side and the lampstand is on the right side.”

See also cardinal directions / left and right.

Jerusalem

The name that is transliterated as “Jerusalem” in English is signed in French Sign Language with a sign that depicts worshiping at the Western Wall in Jerusalem:


“Jerusalem” in French Sign Language (source: La Bible en langue des signes française )

While a similar sign is also used in British Sign Language, another, more neutral sign that combines the sign “J” and the signs for “place” is used as well. (Source: Anna Smith)


“Jerusalem” in British Sign Language (source: Christian BSL, used with permission)

Learn more on Bible Odyssey: Jerusalem .

king

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Some languages do not have a concept of kingship and therefore no immediate equivalent for the Greek, Hebrew, Aramaic, and Latin that is translated as “king” in English. Here are some (back-) translations:

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  • Piro: “a great one”
  • Highland Totonac: “the big boss”
  • Huichol: “the one who commanded” (source for this and above: Bratcher / Nida)
  • Ekari: “the one who holds the country” (source: Reiling / Swellengrebel)
  • Una: weik sienyi: “big headman” (source: Kroneman 2004, p. 407)
  • Pass Valley Yali: “Big Man” (source: Daud Soesilo)
  • Ninia Yali: “big brother with the uplifted name” (source: Daud Soesilio in Noss 2007, p. 175)
  • Nyamwezi: mutemi: generic word for ruler, by specifying the city or nation it becomes clear what kind of ruler (source: Pioneer Bible Translators, project-specific translation notes in Paratext)
  • Ghomála’: Fo (“The word Fo refers to the paramount ruler in the kingdoms of West Cameroon. He holds administrative, political, and religious power over his own people, who are divided into two categories: princes (descendants of royalty) and servants (everyone else).” (Source: Michel Kenmogne in Theologizing in Context: An Example from the Study of a Ghomala’ Christian Hymn))

Faye Edgerton retells how the term in Navajo (Dinė) was determined:

“[This term was] easily expressed in the language of Biblical culture, which had kings and noblemen with their brilliant trappings and their position of honor and praise. But leadership among the Navajos is not accompanied by any such titles or distinctions of dress. Those most respected, especially in earlier days, were their headmen, who were the leaders in raids, and the shaman, who was able to serve the people by appealing for them to the gods, or by exorcising evil spirits. Neither of these made any outward show. Neither held his position by political intrigue or heredity. If the headman failed consistently in raids, he was superceded by a better warrior. If the shaman failed many times in his healing ceremonies, it was considered that he was making mistakes in the chants, or had lost favor with the gods, and another was sought. The term Navajos use for headman is derived from a verb meaning ‘to move the head from side to side as in making an oration.’ The headman must be a good orator, able to move the people to go to war, or to follow him in any important decision. This word is naat’áanii which now means ‘one who rules or bosses.’ It is employed now for a foreman or boss of any kind of labor, as well as for the chairman of the tribal council. So in order to show that the king is not just a common boss but the highest ruler, the word ‘aláahgo, which expresses the superlative degree, was put before naat’áanii, and so ‘aláahgo naat’áanii ‘anyone-more-than-being around-he-moves-his-head-the-one-who’ means ‘the highest ruler.’ Naat’áanii was used for governor as the context usually shows that the person was a ruler of a country or associated with kings.”

(Source: Faye Edgerton in The Bible Translator 1962, p. 25ff. )

See also king (Japanese honorifics).

Translation commentary on Zechariah 14:10

The whole land shall be turned into a plain: As the following description makes clear, The whole land here refers not to the entire world as in verse 9, but to the land of Judah. Shall be turned into a plain is literally “shall become like the Arabah” (New Jewish Publication Society’s Tanakh). The “Arabah” is the Jordan Valley. New Jewish Publication Society’s Tanakh in a footnote claims that the point of the comparison is the low-lying nature of the Jordan Valley, which at 1,200 feet (about 360 meters) below sea level is the lowest point on the surface of the earth. However, most scholars consider that it is the flatness of the Jordan Valley in contrast with the mountains on both sides which is the point of the comparison. This is the basis of expressions like turned into a plain, “made level” (Good News Translation), and “turned into flatlands” (Contemporary English Version).

From Geba to Rimmon south of Jerusalem: Geba was a town at the northern border of Judah before the exile (1 Kgs 15.22; 2 Kgs 23.8), about ten kilometers (six miles) north of Jerusalem. Rimmon cannot be certainly identified, but was a town somewhere in the south (compare Josh 15.32; Josh 19.7; Neh 11.29), about 55 kilometers (35 miles) southwest of Jerusalem, according to Baldwin. The fact that it is qualified by the description south of Jerusalem suggests that it may not have been a very well-known place in the prophet’s own day. Whatever its exact location, there is little doubt that the names of Geba and Rimmon used together like this indicate “from the northern to the southern extremities of the land” or “from one end of the country to the other.” Good News Translation is justified in making this clear by saying “from Geba in the north to Rimmon in the south” (as also Bible en français courant, Parola Del Signore: La Bibbia in Lingua Corrente). In some languages it will be necessary to relate these directions to Jerusalem, as Revised Standard Version does with south of Jerusalem, or for the first sentence translators may say, for example, “The whole of Judah from Geba to the north of Jerusalem as far as Rimmon to the south will become flatlands [or, a plain].”

But Jerusalem shall remain aloft upon its site: The hills around Jerusalem are in present reality higher than the city itself. While they will all be flattened, the city will remain on its hill, at that time towering above the surrounding plain. Jerusalem is about 760 meters (2,500 feet) above sea level. The picture of the city standing higher than the land around fits its status as the central point of the LORD’s rule, and is related to similar ideas in Isa 2.2 and Micah 4.1. Another way to render this is “But Jerusalem will remain standing high above the plain [or, flatlands].”

From the Gate of Benjamin to the place of the former gate, to the Corner Gate: The rest of the verse is generally agreed to describe the extent of the city of Jerusalem, though some of the details are no longer entirely clear. The Gate of Benjamin (mentioned for instance also in Jer 37.13; Jer 38.7) was more or less at the northeastern extremity of the city wall. Some translators have taken the expression that Revised Standard Version renders the former gate as a proper name: “the First Gate” (Jerusalem Bible, New International Version) or “Old Gate Place” (Contemporary English Version). Either way, it is not certain whether the place of the former gate is related to the Corner Gate so that both phrases refer to a single place, or whether they describe two separate places. Good News Translation takes the first view, and restructures to express it unambiguously: “from the Benjamin Gate to the Corner Gate, where there had been an earlier gate” (also Jerusalem Bible, Bible en français courant, Die Bibel im heutigen Deutsch, Parola Del Signore: La Bibbia in Lingua Corrente). New Jewish Publication Society’s Tanakh takes the second view, and expresses it clearly with “from the Gate of Benjamin to the site of the Old Gate, down to the Corner Gate” (similarly New Living Translation). Several versions, like Revised Standard Version, are ambiguous. Translators should make a decision, as Good News Translation and New Jewish Publication Society’s Tanakh have, and their rendering should show which decision they have made. Since the extent of the city is being described, it seems slightly more likely that there would be a total of four points of reference rather than five. We therefore favor the decision taken by Good News Translation, though it is impossible to be certain whether this is correct.

The Corner Gate is also mentioned in 2 Kgs 14.13; 2 Chr 26.9 and Jer 31.38. It was probably near the northwestern corner of the city. If so, then a line from the Gate of Benjamin to the Corner Gate would indicate the approximate size of the city from east to west.

From the Tower of Hananel to the king’s wine presses: The Tower of Hananel is mentioned in Neh 3.1 and 12.39. If translators need to be more precise about the relationship underlying the word of, they may assume that Hananel was the person who had the Tower built (Gaide). This tower was part of the fortifications of the wall on the northern side of the city, probably not far from the Benjamin Gate (Meyers & Meyers). Tower may also be rendered as “a strong high building in the wall.” The location of the king’s wine presses is not known, but it was probably at the south end of the city in the vicinity of “the king’s garden” (Neh 3.15; Jer 39.4). Wine presses are places where grapes are squeezed to extract the juice for making wine. In cultures where wine-making is not practiced, translators may need to avoid a specific term like wine presses. They may say, for example, “the place where people squeezed juice from the king’s grapes [or, from the king’s fruit].”

A line from the Tower of Hananel to the king’s wine presses would indicate the approximate size of the city from north to south. Thus the geographical part of the verse is saying that the whole of Jerusalem from its eastern to its western limits, and from its northern to its southern limits, will be raised above the surrounding countryside, and will dominate the whole region.

Quoted with permission from Clark, David J. & Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on Zechariah. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2002. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .