Following are a number of back-translations of Revelation 18:13:
Uma: “There was cinnamon and other spices. There were fragrant things called incense, mur and kemenyan. There was grapes/wine oil, flour for bread, and rice. There were cows, sheep, horses, carts [Indonesian: kereta], and people who were made slaves. All the things earlier were their merchandise, even including people also they sold. But when Babel was destroyed, there was no longer anyone to buy.” (Source: Uma Back Translation)
Yakan: “And nobody will buy their other goods like spices, fragrant ointment, incense, the different perfumes, or grape juice and cooking oil and flour and it’s grain. Nobody will buy cattle and sheep, horses and the conveyances like kalesas, and people to be made slaves.” (Source: Yakan Back Translation)
Western Bukidnon Manobo: “and sweet smelling things to be eaten and burned, fragrant resins, wines, oil, flour, wheat, palay, cows, sheep, horses, calesas, and slave people.” (Source: Western Bukidnon Manobo Back Translation)
Kankanaey: “Neither is there anyone to buy their cinnamon (Eng.), perfumed oil/ointment, incense, myrrh (mirra) and frankincense (Eng.). Likewise also their items-for-sale which are alcoholic-beverages, vegetable-oil, finest flour, wheat, cattle and sheep, horses and carriages, and even people whom they sell for slaves.” (Source: Kankanaey Back Translation)
Tagbanwa: “There’s now no-one who will buy flavorings for foods, and incense and other perfumes, ubas fruit juice drink, oil of olibo, flour and wheat. No-one now can be caused to buy their cows, sheep, horses and vehicles which are drawn by horses. Even their fellowmen which they are trading which they are causing to be slaves, they will no longer be bought.” (Source: Tagbanwa Back Translation)
Tenango Otomi: “No one will buy the loads of cinnamon, or the things which smell beautifully. The incenses which are burned, the myrrh, the perfume, the wine, the oil, the fine wheat flour. No one will buy cattle or sheep or horses. No one will buy wagons. No one will buy people to do their work without giving them wages.” (Source: Tenango Otomi Back Translation)
Two kinds of wild wheat have grown in the open deciduous oak woodland in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent for several thousand years: Einkorn Wheat Triticum monococcum and Emmer Wheat Triticum dicoccum. Both came into cultivation together with barley. Just before the time of the Romans, the Naked Bread Wheat or Hard Wheat Triticum durum started replacing the hulled varieties. This then became the favorite type of wheat for bread and macaroni. Spelt is a sub-member of the Triticum aestivum species.
In New Revised Standard Version, updated edition and some other versions, the generic Hebrew word bar has been rendered “wheat” in Jeremiah 23:28 et al. This is legitimate, since the grain referred to by bar was probably wheat. However, it might be better to say “grain” in these passages.
The most important early wheat for the Israelites was emmer, probably the only wheat known in Egypt, and referred to in Hebrew as chittah. However, according to Hepper (Baker Encyclopedia of Bible Plants: Flowers and Trees, Fruits and Vegetables, Ecology. Baker Book House, 1992), the seven-headed wheat of the Egyptian king’s dream (Genesis 41:5ff.) suggests that there may also have been Triticum turgidum (rivet wheat) in the emmer group. The Hebrew word kusemeth probably refers to a type of emmer wheat that the Egyptians called swt.
Wheat is a type of grass like rice and barley, growing to around 75 centimeters (2.5 feet) in height and having a head with many small grains in rows.
Bread made from wheat was the staple food for the people of ancient Israel, so God punished them by breaking “the staff of bread” (see, for example, Ezekiel 4:16).
If wheat is unfamiliar, translators can transliterate from a major language in non-rhetorical contexts (for example, English witi, Portuguese trigo, French ble or froment, Swahili ngano, Arabic kama/alkama). The transliteration may add a generic tag such as “grain.” The New Testament passages are mostly rhetorical, opening the possibility for a metaphorical equivalent.
Before the time of Abraham at least five breeds of sheep had already been developed in Mesopotamia. From mummified remains (that is, preserved dead bodies) and ancient art it is also known that at least two different breeds had reached Egypt by about 2000 B.C. Thus it is likely that the sheep mentioned in the Bible were of more than one breed.
The Hebrew word kar seems to be used of imported foreign sheep and may refer to a special breed but some scholars think it refers to a wether (castrated ram), since this word is never used in the context of sacrifice. This word is also used for a battering ram, that is, a heavy pole suspended on a rope, used in war for breaking down walls. ’Ayil is the word for a ram or adult male sheep, rachel is a breeding ewe or female sheep, and taleh is a very young lamb, probably still unweaned. The remaining Hebrew words refer to sheep in general.
The Greek word probaton is the general word for sheep, or flocks that may include goats. Krios is the Greek word for a ram or male sheep. Pascha is a technical name for the Passover lamb exclusively, and the remaining Greek words all mean lamb. Ovis is the Latin word for sheep.
Click or tap here for the rest of this entry in United Bible Societies’ All Creatures Great and Small: Living things in the Bible.
The early Hebrews were nomadic shepherds to whom sheep were the most important domestic animal. While goats eat almost any vegetation, sheep are much more selective about the grasses and plants they eat. This meant that suitable grazing for them was not always easy to find, and shepherds had to keep moving their flocks from place to place. This led to a nomadic lifestyle, with movable tents rather than houses being the normal household shelter. It was not until the occupation of Canaan after the Exodus that the lifestyle of the Israelites changed, and they became settled village-dwelling farmers and fruit growers.
However, even then, most households owned sheep, and some family members would function as shepherds, often living away from home for fairly long periods.
Sheep in the Bible were a source of meat, milk, wool, hides, and horns, and it seems likely that various strains were bred selectively to enhance production of these commodities. Wool is mentioned in the Bible as early as the Mosaic Law, which forbade the weaving of cloth containing both wool and plant fibers. The shearing of sheep is mentioned even earlier, in Genesis 31:19. Wool was in fact the most common and available fiber known to the people of Israel.
There was a very extensive wool trade in biblical times, stretching from Egypt to China. In the Middle East wool was cheaper than cotton or linen, which were the other common fibers. (Silk was known by the time of Solomon, but it was extremely expensive as it was produced in China and handled by numerous traders on its way west.) It would be a mistake to think of all wool at that time as being white, as Genesis 30 indicates quite clearly that there were also dark colored sheep and sheep that had dark and light patches, probably varying combinations of black, white, and brown.
We can be fairly sure that one breed of sheep known to the Israelites was the Fat-tailed Sheep Ovis laticaudata and that its fatty tail is referred to in Exodus 29:22, Leviticus 3:9 et al.
Rams’ horns had a variety of uses. Whole ram horns were used as drinking vessels, jars, and trumpets. But pieces of horn were used as handles for knives and other household implements, and for jewelry such as bracelets and beads. Needles too, and probably also arrow heads, were made from horn, as well as from bone and later from bronze and iron.
Sheep were also very important in Israelite religion. They were a very important element in the sacrificial system and in the traditional religious feasts, especially the Feast of Passover.
Sheep and goats belong to the same general family. They differ in that sheep produce wool, which is a special type of soft hair, among the ordinary hairs on their bodies. A ram’s horns too differ in shape from a goat’s horns, those of a ram curling down in a tight spiral beside its face, with those of a goat curving more gently back towards its shoulders. The sheep of biblical times produced much shorter wool than is common with wool-bearing breeds of today.
The fat-tailed or broad-tailed sheep is a smallish breed usually brown and white with a very broad tail. Like most other breeds of sheep in the Middle East it has large floppy ears.
Sheep are generally fairly timid animals, lacking the self-confidence and adaptability of goats. While goats will spread out in their search for food and then regroup without much difficulty, sheep become very insecure when they are separated from other sheep and tend to stay bunched together. They thus require a lot of shepherding. In the Middle East the method of shepherding involves training the dominant ram to follow the shepherd. The remaining sheep then follow this dominant ram, which often wears a wooden clapper or a bell. As they feed, the sheep usually keep within earshot of this sound. It is likely that this method is centuries old.
In most modern breeds only male sheep have horns, but in most ancient breeds female sheep had short horns too. This made separating sheep from goats in a single flock more difficult than it is today.
Of all animals the sheep was the most important for the Israelite nation. It had great religious, social, and economic importance.
The metaphor of a lamb is used in the New Testament to refer to Christ, with an emphasis on his being a sacrifice for the sin of the world. This is especially the case in John’s gospel and Revelation. In the latter book the metaphor is introduced in a very striking way. In Revelation 5:5 as the writer is mourning the fact that no one can be found to open the scroll, he is comforted by one of the elders who tells him that “the Lion of the tribe of Judah” has triumphed and can thus open the scroll. Then the writer, expecting to see the Lion, sees instead a Lamb that looks as if it has been killed for sacrifice. The remainder of the book is then concerned with describing the triumph of this Lamb over the forces of evil.
In the gospels Jesus also refers to his disciples as “sheep” and “lambs” (Matthew 10:17; John 10:1 et al.).
The metaphor of the shepherd is extended to God himself who is the ultimate “Shepherd of Israel” (Psalms 23:1; 80:1). Then those who are responsible for the nurture, guidance, ruling, and protection of Israel, be it kings, prophets, or priests, are also likened to shepherds (Isaiah 56:11; Jeremiah 23:4; 49:19; Ezekiel 34:2; Zechariah 10:2).
The Messiah is also called a shepherd (Isaiah 40:11), and Jesus refers to himself as “the good shepherd” (John 10:11). In Hebrews 13:20 he is referred to as “the great shepherd of the sheep” and in 1 Peter 2:25 he is called “the Shepherd and Guardian of your lives”.
In languages that have a word for sheep, it is advisable to translate according to the meanings given above. If possible, the feminine forms should be translated as “female lamb” or “female sheep”. In languages in which sheep are not known, a word has usually been coined or borrowed by the time Bible translation begins, and this word should be used. It is not advisable to substitute another locally well-known animal in this case, since doing so negates the ritual and symbolic importance that sheep had for the biblical cultures.
In translating Psalms 23:1 it is extremely important to make sure that the phrase “my shepherd” preserves the relationship intended by the writer and reflects the psalmist’s theme that Yahweh is his benefactor, protector, and guide. There are really two metaphors involved in the opening verse-the caring shepherd (God) and by clear implication, the dependent sheep (the psalmist). In many languages the literal phrase “my shepherd” depicts a wrong relationship, meaning something like “the one who looks after my sheep” or “the one I employ to watch my sheep.” In many African languages unwary translators have produced a rendering that means “The Chief is (nothing more than) my herdsman.” It is often necessary to restructure the whole verse as something like “I am a sheep, and the lord is my shepherd.”
These three verses are one sentence in Greek, as both Revised Standard Version and Good News Translation show. It is not a complicated sentence, since the goods and wares and products named in verses 12-13 are simply a list of what the businessmen have for sale.
The merchants of the earth: as in Rev. 6.118.3.
Cargo: the Greek word is properly a ship’s cargo (see its use in Acts 21.3); here it refers to all the products, or wares, or goods that the businessmen sell. This first sentence may be also expressed as “The people on earth who buy and sell things will weep very much for Babylon, because no one buys their goods anymore.”
The list that follows resembles that of Ezek 27.5-14. It may be broken up into smaller groups, as Good News Translation has done, by use of descriptive phrases and of semicolons, instead of commas only, as Revised Standard Version does. Six groups may be found:
(1) gold, silver, jewels and pearls: the gold and silver may be bullion, but are probably objects or ornaments made of gold and silver (see 17.4, which also lists jewels and pearls).
(2) fine linen, purple, silk and scarlet: these are cloths and clothes and may be grouped as follows: “clothes (or, cloths) made of fine linen…” (for linen see 15.5-6); purple … and scarlet are cloths dyed these two colors. Cloths with these two colors were particularly valuable (see 17.4). An alternative translation model for this group is “clothes made from beautiful white cloth named ‘linen,’ expensive purple cloth, soft expensive cloth named ‘silk,’ and scarlet colored cloth.”
(3) scented wood: this is aromatic wood, “wood with a pleasant smell” (or else, like Good News Translation, “rare woods”). This wood (from the citron tree) was used to make expensive furniture.
All articles of ivory … costly wood, bronze, iron and marble: these various artifacts may all be listed together. Ivory comes from the long, enlarged teeth (tusks) of elephants, which protrude out from each side of their mouths. These are used by elephants for digging, fighting, and so on. The tusks are valuable for making beautiful objects such as furniture. For bronze see 9.20. Marble is a form of limestone that can be highly polished and is often used by artists for carving sculptures. In cultures where marble is unknown, one may say “beautiful rock.”
(4) Perfumes, ointments, and incenses: Cinnamon: a plant that produced a sweet-smelling oil, used also for burning. Spice was used as a perfume or ointment. Incense: see 5.8. Myrrh: an expensive ointment (see Matt 26.7, 9); this may also be termed “a sweet smelling thing (or, ointment) named ‘myrrh.’ ” Frankincense: also used for burning (see Matt 2.11). Where frankincense is unknown it may be called “a sweet smelling expensive powder named ‘frankincense.’ ” In certain languages translators will prefer to combine all of these and say, for example, “all kinds of expensive perfumes and oils” or “all kinds of expensive sweet-smelling oils and powders.”
(5) Food and drink: wine, oil (that is, olive oil, as New Revised Standard Version has it), fine flour and wheat. Fine flour refers in this context to finely ground wheat flour, and wheat means the wheat kernels that have not yet been ground into flour. In cultures where wheat is unknown but other grains are cultivated, translators may use a generic term and say “finely ground flour and grain kernels.”
(6) Animals and slaves: cattle and sheep, horses and chariots: these are not war chariots but four-wheeled carriages used for riding. Chariots may also be translated as “horse-pulled carts.” The last item in this list of wares is slaves, that is, human souls. This is a possible translation of the Greek text (New American Bible, Revised “and slaves, that is, human beings”; Biblia Dios Habla Hoy “and even slaves, who are human lives”). Most translations, however, like Good News Translation, have “human lives” as an additional item (An American Translation, Revised English Bible, New Revised Standard Version, Bible en français courant). The trouble with this, however, is that it implies that slaves are not human beings. New International Version translates “and bodies and souls of men”; New Jerusalem Bible “their slaves, and their human cargo.” Die Bibel im heutigen Deutsch takes the two to mean the one thing: “and even the lives of men.” The first word in Greek is “bodies,” which is commonly assumed to mean slaves; the second expression is “souls (or, lives) of people.” This phrase is found in the Greek Septuagint version of Num 31.35, meaning (female) prisoners of war, and in 1 Chr 5.21 of male prisoners of war. In Ezek 27.13 it means slaves. This usage makes it quite likely that the two here mean, as Traduction œcuménique de la Bible translates it, “slaves and captives,” that is, slaves and prisoners of war. This is the translation recommended. One may also translate these terms as “people owned by others and people captured in war.”
The following information given by Beasley-Murray (page 267) should be of interest and value to the translator:
• Rome’s trade was worldwide, and even this modest enumeration of its imports entails many lands. The gold, ivory, and costly wood, for example, came from North Africa, the jewels andpearls from India, spices from Arabia, cinnamon from South China, myrrh from Media, wheat from Egypt, horses from Armenia, chariots from Gaul, and slaves from all areas of the world. John’s double mention of the last item is revealing, since the term for slaves is “bodies,” and the phrase human souls in ordinary speech was synonymous, but it virtually carried the meaning of human livestock.
Quoted with permission from Bratcher, Robert G. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on The Revelation to John. (UBS Handbook Series). New York: UBS, 1993. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .
cinnamon: This word refers to a spice made from the inner bark of cinnamon trees. In some languages people are not familiar with cinnamon. If that is true in your language, you may want to:
• Explain the word in your translation. For example:
spice called cinnamon -or-
cinnamon spice
• Use the major language word. If people are not familiar with this word, explain it in a footnote. For example:
Cinnamon is a spice made from the inner bark of cinnamon trees.
spice: The Greek word that the Berean Standard Bible translates as spice refers to the extract from a plant of India called amomum. This is probably the spice that is today called black cardamom.
In some languages people are not familiar with amomum or cardamom. If that is true in your language, you may want to:
• Use the major language word. If people are not familiar with this word, explain that it is a spice. For example:
cardamom ⌊spice⌋
• Use the major language word. If people are not familiar with this word, explain it in a footnote. An example footnote is:
This word refers to a spice which comes from a plant called amomum.
incense: The word incense refers to the dried sap of certain kinds of trees. The dried sap burns slowly to make a sweet-smelling smoke. Incense is often used as a part of worship.
In some languages people are not familiar with incense. If that is true in your language, you may want to:
• Explain the word in your translation. For example:
⌊special tree⌋ resin/sap ⌊called incense⌋ burned to give/release a sweet smell -or-
sweet smelling ⌊tree⌋ resin/sap ⌊called incense⌋
• Use the major language word. If people are not familiar with this word, explain it in a footnote. For example:
Incense is the dried sap of certain trees. The dried sap burns slowly to make a sweet-smelling smoke. People often burned incense as part of their worship.
See how you translated this word in 5:8.
myrrh: The word myrrh refers to a product from the sap of the myrrh bush. People use it to make a highly valued ointment and perfume.
In some languages people are not familiar with myrrh. If that is true in your language, you may want to:
• Explain the word in your translation. For example:
myrrh ⌊bush⌋ sap ⌊made into perfume⌋ -or-
sweet smelling ⌊bush⌋ sap ⌊called myrrh⌋
• Use the major language word. If people are not familiar with this word, explain it in a footnote. An example footnote is:
Myrrh comes from the sap of the myrrh bush. People use it to make a highly valued ointment and perfume.
frankincense: The word frankincense refers to a product from the sap of several kinds of trees. People dry the sap, grind it into a powder, then burn it to make a good-smelling smoke. It can also be an ingredient in perfume.
In some languages people are not familiar with frankincense. If that is true in your language, you may want to:
• Explain the word in your translation. For example:
⌊tree⌋ resin/sap burned for a sweet smell ⌊called frankincense⌋ -or-
sweet/good smelling ⌊tree⌋ resin/sap ⌊called frankincense⌋
• Use the major language word. If people are not familiar with this word, explain it in a footnote. An example footnote is:
Frankincense comes from the sap of several kinds of trees. People dry the sap and burn it during worship in order to make a sweet smelling smoke. Or they add it to perfume.
18:13b
wine: Wine is an alcoholic beverage made from the juice of grapes. In some languages people are not familiar with wine. If that is true in your language, you may want to:
• Explain it in your translation. For example:
⌊alcoholic beverage of⌋ wine -or-
⌊an alcoholic beverage made from grapes, called⌋ wine
• Use the name of the common alcoholic beverage in your area. You may then want a footnote to explain the literal word. For example:
Literally: “wine.”
See how you translated this word in 14:8 or 17:2.
olive oil: The olive is a small oval fruit. People squeeze the oil out of it. The oil is used as cooking oil and as fuel for lamps.
fine flour: The Greek word here refers to the best quality of flour. For example:
high quality flour -or-
the best flour
wheat: The word wheat refers to a grain plant commonly grown in that part of the world. It was more expensive than barley. Poor people bought barley. So this word implies that the people of Babylon were wealthy.
18:13c
cattle: This word refers to large animals that were used for work. They carried loads, pulled plows, and did other hard work for people.
In some languages people are not familiar with cattle. If that is true in your language, you may want to:
• Explain the word in your translation. For example:
strong/pulling animals -or-
large farm/pack animals
• Use the major language word. If people are not familiar with this word, explain it in a footnote. An example footnote is:
Cattle are large farm animals that can pull heavy loads. People eat their meat and drink their milk.
sheep: The word sheep refers to smaller farm animals. They usually stay in groups. They weigh 40 to 60 kilograms. They eat plants. Here people probably bought sheep for their wool and meat.
In some languages people are not familiar with sheep. If that is true in your language, you may want to:
• Explain the word in your translation. For example:
woolly animals ⌊called sheep⌋
• Use the major language word. If people are not familiar with this word, explain it in a footnote. An example footnote is:
This word refers to a medium-sized farm animal. People use their hair to make cloth and eat their meat.
horses: A horse is a large, four-legged animal that weighs 500 kilograms (1100 pounds) or more. They are about 1.5 meters (5 feet) high at their back. People ride horses.
In some languages people are not familiar with horses. If that is true in your language, you may want to:
• Explain the word in your translation. For example:
riding animals ⌊called horses⌋
• Use the major language word. If people are not familiar with this word, explain it in a footnote. An example footnote is:
A horse is a large animal that a person can ride. The person could direct the horse to go where he wanted.
See how you translated this word in 6:2 or 14:20.
chariots: This word refers to four-wheeled vehicles pulled by horses, like a “carriage.” The wheels were made of wood. The Greek word could refer to:
(1) Vehicles made to carry people comfortably. These chariots or “carriages” (New International Version (2011)) had seats and were usually covered to protect the people from rain.
(2) Vehicles made to carry heavy loads.
Use a word or phrase that refers to either one or both meanings.
18:13d
slaves and souls of men: The Berean Standard Bible translates the Greek words literally. There are two interpretation issues. These words can refer to people in general or to slaves. Also, they can refer to one group or two groups. The main interpretations are:
(1) The words refers to two groups of people. The word slaves refers to slaves. The phrase souls of men refers to another group of people. The second group might be prisoners of war. For example:
slaves, and even human lives (Good News Translation)
(2) The words refers to slaves as one group of people. It uses two similar phrases to emphasize the meaning. For example:
slaves, that is, human souls (Revised Standard Version)
The Berean Standard Bible is ambiguous. It is recommended that you also translate ambiguously, if possible. But if that is not possible, then follow option (1).
Living Water is produced for the Bible translation movement in association with Lutheran Bible Translators. Lyrics derived from the ESV® Bible (The Holy Bible, English Standard Version®).
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