hyssop

The Hebrew and Greek that is transliterated in English as “hyssop” is translated in Lokạạ as yisoki. Yisoki “is the name of a local bitter herb that is used for ritual cleansing in the traditional religion. It was, therefore, perceived by the translators as functionally adequate for ‘hyssop.’ The translation is thus symbolic in that it uses an indigenous Lokạạ botanical term and simultaneously indexical in that the translators believed that the translation points to the functional significance of the incipient term.” (Source: J.A. Naudé, C.L. Miller Naudé, J.O. Obono in Acta Theologica 43/2, 2023, p. 129ff. )

Likewise in Kwere mfumbasi is used, a local plant that both looked similar to hyssop and is traditionally used for sprinkling in rituals. (Source: Pioneer Bible Translators, project-specific translation notes in Paratext)

For more information see Hyssopus officinalis .

Phoenician juniper (coastal juniper)

The Phoenician Juniper Juniperus phoenicea is a lower-altitude cousin of the Grecian juniper. At present it is found scattered throughout the mountains of northern Sinai and southern Jordan, and Hepper notes that it occurs throughout the higher parts of Sinai and Arabia. In ancient times it may have been found throughout the Negev. Deuteronomy 2:36 refers to a town on the edge of the Wadi Arnon called Aroer, which is probably cognate with the Hebrew word ‘ar‘ar, indicating that these trees may have grown there. The identification of ‘ar‘ar/‘aro‘er as the Phoenician juniper is supported by the fact that Arabs in several countries call this juniper ‘ar‘ar. Since it is closely related to the cedars, some people also call it the “Phoenician cedar.” Note that Hebrew uses the same word ’erez to cover both the Phoenician juniper and the mighty cedar of Lebanon.

The Phoenician juniper is a short shrub or tree that may reach 5 meters (17 feet). It has tiny leathery leaflets and small berry-like cones.

We advocate translating ’erez as “juniper” in Leviticus and Numbers, if that species is known, or using a transliteration from a major language. The reference to ‘ar‘ar in Jeremiah 17:6 is poetic, and a cultural equivalent may be used; in a more literal version a transliteration may be used. Some scholars take the Hebrew word ‘aro‘er in the last line of Jeremiah 48:6 as meaning “juniper.”

Phoenician juniper, photo by Ray Pritz

Source: Each According to its Kind: Plants and Trees in the Bible (UBS Helps for Translators)

priest

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The Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek that are typically translated as “priest” in English (itself deriving from Latin “presbyter” — “elder”) is often translated with a consideration of existing religious traditions. (Click or tap for details)

Bratcher / Nida (1961) say this:

“However, rather than borrow local names for priests, some of which have unwanted connotations, a number of translations have employed descriptive phrases based on certain functions: (1) those describing a ceremonial activity: Pamona uses tadu, the priestess who recites the litanies in which she describes her journey to the upper or under-world to fetch life-spirit for sick people, animals or plants; Batak Toba uses the Arabic malim, ‘Muslim religious teacher;’ ‘one who presents man’s sacrifice to God’ (Bambara, Eastern Maninkakan), ‘one who presents sacrifices’ (Baoulé, Navajo), ‘one who takes the name of the sacrifice’ (Kpelle, and ‘to make a sacrifice go out’ (Hausa); (2) those describing an intermediary function: ‘one who speaks to God’ (Shipibo-Conibo) and ‘spokesman of the people before God’ (Tabasco Chontal).”

In Obolo it is translated as ogwu ngwugwa or “the one who offers sacrifice” (source: Enene Enene), in Mairasi as agam aevar nevwerai: “religious leader” (source: Enggavoter 2004), in Ignaciano as “blesser, one who does ritual as a practice” (using a generic term rather than the otherwise common Spanish loan word sacerdote) (source: Willis Ott in Notes on Translation 88/1982, p. 18ff.), and in Noongar as yakin-kooranyi or “holy worker” (source: Warda-Kwabba Luke-Ang).

For Guhu-Samane, Ernest Richert (in The Bible Translator, 1965, p. 81ff. ) reports this: “The [local] cult of Poro used to be an all-encompassing religious system that essentially governed all areas of life. (…) For ‘priest’ the term ‘poro father’ would at first seem to be a natural choice. However, several priests of the old cult are still living. Although they no longer function primarily as priests of the old system they still have a substantial influence on the community, and there would be more than a chance that the unqualified term would (in some contexts particularly) be equated with the priest of the poro cult. We learned, then, that the poro fathers would sometimes be called ‘knife men’ in relation to their sacrificial work. The panel was pleased to apply this term to the Jewish priest, and the Christian community has adopted it fully. [Mark 1:44, for instance, now] reads: ‘You must definitely not tell any man of this. But you go show your body to the knife man and do what Moses said about a sacrifice concerning your being healed, and the cause (base of this) will be apparent.'”

For a revision of the 1968 version of the Bible in Khmer Joseph Hong (in: The Bible Translator 1996, 233ff. ) talks about a change in wording for this term:

​​Bau cha r (បូជា‌ចារ្យ) — The use of this new construction meaning “priest” is maintained to translate the Greek word hiereus. The term “mean sang (មាន សង្ឃ)” used in the old version actually means a “Buddhist monk,” and is felt to be theologically misleading. The Khmer considers the Buddhist monk as a “paddy field of merits,” a reserve of merits to be shared with other people. So a Khmer reader would find unthinkable that the mean sang in the Bible killed animals, the gravest sin for a Buddhist; and what a scandal it would be to say that a mean sang was married, had children, and drank wine.

See also idolatrous priests.

cedar

Long ago the majestic cedars of Lebanon (Cedrus libani) completely covered the upper slopes of the Lebanon Mountains on the western and northern sides. Now only a few pockets of these mighty cedars remain. At that time they were mixed, as they are today, with other trees such as Cilician fir, Grecian juniper, cypress, and Calabrian pine.

We know from 1 Kings that Solomon used cedar wood in his palace and in the Temple. Cedar was used for beams, boards, pillars, and ceilings. Historians tell us that the Assyrians also hauled cedars to their land for use in buildings. Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon also imported cedars from Lebanon. In some versions of Isaiah we read that people made idols of cedar and oak (44:14-20). Finally, when the Temple was rebuilt by the returning exiles (Ezra 3:7), they again cut down cedar trees to grace the house of God.

In 2 Samuel, 1-2 Kings, 1-2 Chronicles and Ezra, when Lebanon is specifically mentioned, there can be no doubt that ’erez is Cedrus libani, the “cedar of Lebanon,” although it is possible that sometimes the word was used loosely to include various evergreen trees.

In the description of the purification rituals (Leviticus 14:4 at al.), the word ’erez probably refers to the Phoenician juniper tree, since that was the only cedar-like tree in the Sinai Desert.

Description  Cedar trees can reach 30 meters (100 feet) high with a trunk more than 2 meters (7 feet) in diameter. The leaves of true cedars are not flat like those of most trees, but consist of tufts of dark green, shiny spines. (The cedars in North America have a flatter type of spine than the biblical cedar.) The wood is fragrant and resistant to insects. Cedars bear cones and can live to be two or three thousand years old.

The cedar of Lebanon is famous for its large size (see Isaiah 2:13 et al.), and for the fragrance of its wood. Psalm 92:12 links the cedar to righteousness, that is, presumably, to its straightness and height above other trees. The cedar is the national emblem of Lebanon.

Cedrus species are found in the mountains of North Africa, in the Himalayas, in India, and in North America. Translators in these places, should, of course, use the local name in nonfigurative references. In sub Saharan Africa, translators can transliterate from Hebrew (’erez), Greek (kedar), English (sedar), or another major language, or they can take a generic solution such as “large, beautiful tree.” In poetic passages (wisdom literature and prophecy), some translators may wish to use a cultural equivalent with these traits. In Africa, according to Burkhill (The Useful Plants of West Tropical Africa, volume 4. Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens, 1985), the Pink Mahogany Guarea cedrata is also called the pink African cedar because of the cedar-like scent of its timber. Likewise, some people in India and Australia use “cedar” to refer to the toon because of its reddish wood. I do not recommend such substitutes in historical passages, since the ’erez is not related to these trees. In some figurative passages, however, the substitution could be effective, since all are large trees with reddish wood. However, each passage has to be evaluated to determine the intended effect of the image.

Cedar of Lebanon, Wikimedia Commons

Source: Each According to its Kind: Plants and Trees in the Bible (UBS Helps for Translators)

Translation commentary on Leviticus 14:4

The priest shall command them: literally “the priest shall command and he shall take….” The Revised Standard Version rendering actually follows a slightly different text which reads “… and they shall take….” In either case, the identity of the person or persons referred to by this pronoun is uncertain. But it is clearly indefinite as in 8.31 and 9.21. The Good News Translation rendering with a passive verb is not helpful to those languages where passives are not used. If an indefinite third person singular or plural pronoun can be used naturally in such a context in the receptor language, then it should be used here. Otherwise it may be necessary to say something like “the priest shall order someone to bring….”

For him who is to be cleansed: Good News Translation leaves this information implicit. But the text makes clear that these actions are to be performed by one or more unnamed individuals on behalf of the diseased person.

Two living clean birds: the two birds that are to be brought must meet two requirements: (1) they must still be alive when they are presented; and (2) they must not be from among those birds that were considered ritually unacceptable by the Jews (see 11.13-19). If the receptor language requires a distinction between large birds and small ones, the word for “small birds” should probably be used here. Note that Good News Translation leaves implicit the fact that the birds must be alive when presented. However, it is probably advisable to make this explicit in the receptor language.

Cedarwood: In many languages it will be necessary to know what quantity of wood or what size “piece” is intended. While we cannot be certain, probably it was a piece that could be carried in one hand of a single individual. In those languages where cedar trees are unknown, it may be necessary to use a more general expression like “a piece of wood with a strong smell” or something similar.

Scarlet stuff: the word translated scarlet here normally refers to “dark red cloth.” The other word literally means the worm or insect (called “cochineal”) which produces a dark red color used as a dye. In this context the entire expression is thought to refer to a kind of string (An American Translation), thread (Moffatt), yarn (New International Version, New American Bible), or cord (Good News Translation) which was dark red in color. If the receptor language makes such distinctions naturally, the color should be stated as “dark red.” Otherwise the closest natural equivalent will have to be considered adequate.

Hyssop: New English Bible and Moffatt render this word as “marjoram,” but most versions retain the traditional rendering hyssop. In some languages it will be necessary to say “a branch of hyssop,” or “a stick of hyssop,” or “a plant called hyssop.” Where hyssop is unknown, it may be necessary to transliterate the word and give a full explanation in the glossary.

Quoted with permission from Péter-Contesse, René and Ellington, John. A Handbook on Leviticus. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 1990. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .