horn

The musical instrument that is most often translated as “(ram’s) horn” or “trumpet” in English is translated in the following ways:

  • Yakan: tabuli’ (big sea shell used to give signals) (source: Yakan Back Translation)
  • Mairasi / Bariai: “Triton shell trumpet” (source: Enggavoter 2004)
  • German Luther translation: Posaune, today: “trombone,” originally with the meaning of a wind instrument made from cow horn (from Latin bucina [bovi- / “cow” + the root of cano / “sing”]. Incidentally, bucina is also used in the Latin Vulgate translation). By the time of Luther’s translation it referred to the natural trumpet or a fanfare trumpet (see also trumpet). Once the meaning morphed to “trombone” in the 19th century, trombone ensembles started to play a central role in Protestant German churches and do so to the present day. In 2016, “Posaunenchöre” became added to the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage list . (Note that Exodus 19:13 is the only exception in the Luther Bible. From the 1956 revision on, Widderhorn or “ram’s horn” is used here) (source: Zetzsche)

In the UBS Helps for Translators‘ Human-made Things in the Bible (original title: The Works of Their Hands: Man-made Things in the Bible) it says the following:

Description: The horn was a wind instrument made from the horn of an animal, usually a male sheep.

Usage: The animal horn was softened so that it could be shaped. The point of the horn was cut off to leave a small opening through which the user blew. The vibration of the lips produced the sound.

The ram’s horn served two general purposes:

1. It was blown in certain religious contexts, not as musical accompaniment to worship but as a signal for important events. Some of these events were the giving of the Law on Mount Sinai, the Day of Atonement, the bringing of the Ark of the Covenant into Jerusalem, and the coronation of kings.

2. It also served as a signal or alarm when war was approaching. Such references are particularly common in the prophetic books, when the prophets are calling the people to repent (Hosea 5:8; 8:1; Joel 2:1; 2:15; Amos 3:6).

Translation: In many passages the purpose of the ram’s horn called shofar in Hebrew was to sound an alarm. This will be easy to express in those cultures where the horns of animals are used as musical instruments to give signals to large groups of people. In other cultures it may be possible to find another instrument that is used for an equivalent purpose. In some languages, for example, instruments such as bells or drums are the warnings for war. Some translations have transliterated the word shofar. Unless the instrument is well known, such a borrowing should normally be accompanied by a footnote or a glossary entry.

In some passages it will be necessary to expand the translation in order to indicate that the blowing of the ram’s horn was not just for music; for example, in Ezekiel 7:14 Contemporary English Version has “A signal has been blown on the trumpet,” and the German Contemporary English Version says “An alarm is sounded” [elsewhere, the same German version refers to the horns as Kriegshörner or “war horns.”]

Man blowing ram’s horn (source: Knowles, revised by Bass (c) British and Foreign Bible Society 1994)

Quoted with permission.

king

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Some languages do not have a concept of kingship and therefore no immediate equivalent for the Greek, Hebrew, Aramaic, and Latin that is translated as “king” in English. Here are some (back-) translations:

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  • Piro: “a great one”
  • Highland Totonac: “the big boss”
  • Huichol: “the one who commanded” (source for this and above: Bratcher / Nida)
  • Ekari: “the one who holds the country” (source: Reiling / Swellengrebel)
  • Una: weik sienyi: “big headman” (source: Kroneman 2004, p. 407)
  • Pass Valley Yali: “Big Man” (source: Daud Soesilo)
  • Ninia Yali: “big brother with the uplifted name” (source: Daud Soesilio in Noss 2007, p. 175)
  • Nyamwezi: mutemi: generic word for ruler, by specifying the city or nation it becomes clear what kind of ruler (source: Pioneer Bible Translators, project-specific translation notes in Paratext)
  • Ghomála’: Fo (“The word Fo refers to the paramount ruler in the kingdoms of West Cameroon. He holds administrative, political, and religious power over his own people, who are divided into two categories: princes (descendants of royalty) and servants (everyone else).” (Source: Michel Kenmogne in Theologizing in Context: An Example from the Study of a Ghomala’ Christian Hymn))

Faye Edgerton retells how the term in Navajo (Dinė) was determined:

“[This term was] easily expressed in the language of Biblical culture, which had kings and noblemen with their brilliant trappings and their position of honor and praise. But leadership among the Navajos is not accompanied by any such titles or distinctions of dress. Those most respected, especially in earlier days, were their headmen, who were the leaders in raids, and the shaman, who was able to serve the people by appealing for them to the gods, or by exorcising evil spirits. Neither of these made any outward show. Neither held his position by political intrigue or heredity. If the headman failed consistently in raids, he was superceded by a better warrior. If the shaman failed many times in his healing ceremonies, it was considered that he was making mistakes in the chants, or had lost favor with the gods, and another was sought. The term Navajos use for headman is derived from a verb meaning ‘to move the head from side to side as in making an oration.’ The headman must be a good orator, able to move the people to go to war, or to follow him in any important decision. This word is naat’áanii which now means ‘one who rules or bosses.’ It is employed now for a foreman or boss of any kind of labor, as well as for the chairman of the tribal council. So in order to show that the king is not just a common boss but the highest ruler, the word ‘aláahgo, which expresses the superlative degree, was put before naat’áanii, and so ‘aláahgo naat’áanii ‘anyone-more-than-being around-he-moves-his-head-the-one-who’ means ‘the highest ruler.’ Naat’áanii was used for governor as the context usually shows that the person was a ruler of a country or associated with kings.”

(Source: Faye Edgerton in The Bible Translator 1962, p. 25ff. )

See also king (Japanese honorifics).

Translation commentary on 2 Kings 9:13

In haste every man of them took his garment: The Hebrew word rendered in haste is translated “quickly” in 1 Kgs 20.33 and 22.9. It is so translated here by a variety of versions (New Jewish Publication Society’s Tanakh, Contemporary English Version) since it introduces the hurried actions of Jehu’s fellow officers. Others convey the same meaning with “hurriedly” (New Revised Standard Version) or “At once” (Good News Translation, New American Bible). In some languages the swift conduct of these men may be represented by the choice of a verb for took. Revised English Bible does this in English by using the verb “snatched up.”

Every man of them refers to all the military men who were present at the time. These words stress the fact that every individual was included in the action taken. Compare “each took his garment” (New American Bible) and “they all took their cloaks” (New Jerusalem Bible).

While the Hebrew term rendered garment is a very general one (see the comments on 1 Kgs 1.1, where Revised Standard Version translates it “clothes”), here it almost certainly refers to the outer garments or “cloaks” (New Revised Standard Version, Revised English Bible, New Jerusalem Bible) of the officers. Translators should avoid giving the impression that the officers stripped off all their clothing.

Put it under him on the bare steps: The officers placed their outer garments under Jehu to acknowledge him as king and to pledge their support to him. The spreading of clothing under the feet of Jehu is similar to the action of the crowd that welcomed Jesus to Jerusalem in Matt 21.8.

The meaning of the Hebrew words translated on the bare steps is uncertain. Some have understood it to mean “at the top of the steps” (Good News Translation, Revised English Bible; similarly New Jewish Publication Society’s Tanakh, Jewish Publication Version), but this reading is based on a change in the Hebrew text. Others follow Revised Standard Version, indicating that the steps were empty or uncovered (New Revised Standard Version, New International Version, New American Bible, New Jerusalem Bible, American Bible, Hobbs). Some interpreters have suggested that the Hebrew word rendered bare was an architectural term whose meaning is no longer known. In any case, some translators may need to know what steps are involved here. Possibly this refers to the six steps to the throne (1 Kgs 10.19-20). Since the meaning of the Hebrew is uncertain, translators may choose to follow either of the first two interpretations.

They blew the trumpet: As in 1 Kgs 1.34, the trumpet is probably to be understood in a collective sense as “trumpets” since a plural subject is used. Trumpet calls were used in the crowning of Solomon (1 Kgs 1.34) and Joash (2 Kgs 11.14). The trumpets used here were made of rams’ horns and were often blown to indicate to the public at large that an important proclamation was about to be made (see the comments at 1 Kgs 1.34).

Proclaimed; that is, they “shouted” (Good News Translation, Revised English Bible, New Jerusalem Bible) or “cried out” (New American Bible).

Jehu is king may be rendered “Jehu rules.” Some commentators consider it significant that this proclamation is different from the more common “Long live the king!” (1 Sam 10.24; 2 Sam 16.16; 1 Kgs 1.25, 34, 39; 2 Chr 23.11). The latter proclamation is said to be shouted only when there is virtually unanimous consent to a person’s kingship. In any case, translators should attempt to distinguish the two different forms insofar as possible.

Quoted with permission from Omanson, Roger L. and Ellington, John E. A Handbook on 1-2 Kings, Volume 2. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2008. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .