Teutila Cuicatec: “God who has a great rule” (source for this and above: Viola Waterhouse in Notes on Translation August 1966, p. 86ff.)
Sa’a: “God, the Surpassing One” (source: Carl Gross)
Elhomwe: Mulluku Muullupalli or “God the Great” (source: project-specific translation notes in Paratext)
Chichewa: Wammwambamwamba: A name of God. While this word is difficult to translate into English, its sense implies that God is highly above everything in his power and greatness. (Source: Mawu a Mulungu mu Chichewa Chalero Back Translation)
Some languages do not have a concept of kingship and therefore no immediate equivalent for the Greek, Hebrew, Aramaic, and Latin that is translated as “king” in English. Here are some (back-) translations:
Ninia Yali: “big brother with the uplifted name” (source: Daud Soesilio in Noss 2007, p. 175)
Nyamwezi: mutemi: generic word for ruler, by specifying the city or nation it becomes clear what kind of ruler (source: Pioneer Bible Translators, project-specific translation notes in Paratext)
Ghomála’: Fo (“The word Fo refers to the paramount ruler in the kingdoms of West Cameroon. He holds administrative, political, and religious power over his own people, who are divided into two categories: princes (descendants of royalty) and servants (everyone else).” (Source: Michel Kenmogne in Theologizing in Context: An Example from the Study of a Ghomala’ Christian Hymn))
Faye Edgerton retells how the term in Navajo (Dinė) was determined:
“[This term was] easily expressed in the language of Biblical culture, which had kings and noblemen with their brilliant trappings and their position of honor and praise. But leadership among the Navajos is not accompanied by any such titles or distinctions of dress. Those most respected, especially in earlier days, were their headmen, who were the leaders in raids, and the shaman, who was able to serve the people by appealing for them to the gods, or by exorcising evil spirits. Neither of these made any outward show. Neither held his position by political intrigue or heredity. If the headman failed consistently in raids, he was superceded by a better warrior. If the shaman failed many times in his healing ceremonies, it was considered that he was making mistakes in the chants, or had lost favor with the gods, and another was sought. The term Navajos use for headman is derived from a verb meaning ‘to move the head from side to side as in making an oration.’ The headman must be a good orator, able to move the people to go to war, or to follow him in any important decision. This word is naat’áanii which now means ‘one who rules or bosses.’ It is employed now for a foreman or boss of any kind of labor, as well as for the chairman of the tribal council. So in order to show that the king is not just a common boss but the highest ruler, the word ‘aláahgo, which expresses the superlative degree, was put before naat’áanii, and so ‘aláahgo naat’áanii ‘anyone-more-than-being around-he-moves-his-head-the-one-who’ means ‘the highest ruler.’ Naat’áanii was used for governor as the context usually shows that the person was a ruler of a country or associated with kings.”
In its last days the Most High will raise up three kings …: See 2 Esd 11.29-35; 12.1. The pronoun its refers to the Roman Empire, so In its last days may be rendered “in the last days of the empire” (Good News Bible) or “Toward the end of the empire.” Instead of kings, the Latin text has “kingdoms” (Revised Standard Version footnote), which is surely wrong. This clause may be rendered “Toward the end this empire God Most High will raise up three kings to rule over the world.”
And they shall renew many things in it: Instead of the pronoun they, which refers to the three kings, the Latin text has “he,” which refers to God. Like most scholars, we prefer the pronoun they (so also Good News Bible). This clause may be translated “They will restore much of the power of the empire” or “They will regain much of the power that kings had before them.”
And shall rule the earth and its inhabitants more oppressively than all who were before them may be expressed as “and they will rule the earth and its inhabitants with more harshness than any kings that ruled before them.”
Therefore they are called the heads of the eagle: This clause begins a new thought, a wordplay that continues in verse 25. Good News Bible catches this wordplay in a way that Revised Standard Version does not. We suggest saying “They are called [or, represented by] the eagle heads 25 because….”
For it is they who shall sum up his wickedness and perform his last actions: The Latin verb translated sum up is built on the root word rendered heads. Good News Bible (following New English Bible) takes advantage of the English idiom “bring to a head,” meaning to bring to a climax or high point. The idea here is that these three heads (or emperors) will bring the evil of the empire to a climax, a high point beyond which it is not possible to go. Sum up is not quite the same idea. Translators will be lucky if they can keep this wordplay. The clause perform his last actions is not clear, but we take it to mean that the things done by these three kings will be the last things done in the name of the empire. In other words, “they will be the last kings to rule [the empire].”
We suggest the following models for verses 23-25:
• 23 In the empire’s last days God Most High will raise up three kings.* They** will restore much of the empire, and rule the world 24 and its people with more harshness than any before them. They are called [or, represented by] the eagle’s heads 25 because they will bring to a head [or, to a climax/high point] all the wickedness of the empire. They will be the end of the empire.
• 23 In the end times of the empire God Most High will raise up three kings* who will rule the world. They** will gain back much of the power that the kings before them had, and rule the world 24 and its people with more harshness … They will be the last kings to rule [the empire].
* Some ancient translations kings; Latin kingdoms.
** Some ancient translations They; Latin He.
Quoted with permission from Bullard, Roger A. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on 1-2 Esdras. (UBS Helps for Translators). Miami: UBS, 2019. For this and other handbooks for translators see here.
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