In its last days the Most High will raise up three kings …: See 2 Esd 11.29-35; 12.1. The pronoun its refers to the Roman Empire, so In its last days may be rendered “in the last days of the empire” (Good News Bible) or “Toward the end of the empire.” Instead of kings, the Latin text has “kingdoms” (Revised Standard Version footnote), which is surely wrong. This clause may be rendered “Toward the end this empire God Most High will raise up three kings to rule over the world.”

And they shall renew many things in it: Instead of the pronoun they, which refers to the three kings, the Latin text has “he,” which refers to God. Like most scholars, we prefer the pronoun they (so also Good News Bible). This clause may be translated “They will restore much of the power of the empire” or “They will regain much of the power that kings had before them.”

And shall rule the earth and its inhabitants more oppressively than all who were before them may be expressed as “and they will rule the earth and its inhabitants with more harshness than any kings that ruled before them.”

Therefore they are called the heads of the eagle: This clause begins a new thought, a wordplay that continues in verse 25. Good News Bible catches this wordplay in a way that Revised Standard Version does not. We suggest saying “They are called [or, represented by] the eagle heads 25 because….”

For it is they who shall sum up his wickedness and perform his last actions: The Latin verb translated sum up is built on the root word rendered heads. Good News Bible (following New English Bible) takes advantage of the English idiom “bring to a head,” meaning to bring to a climax or high point. The idea here is that these three heads (or emperors) will bring the evil of the empire to a climax, a high point beyond which it is not possible to go. Sum up is not quite the same idea. Translators will be lucky if they can keep this wordplay. The clause perform his last actions is not clear, but we take it to mean that the things done by these three kings will be the last things done in the name of the empire. In other words, “they will be the last kings to rule [the empire].”

We suggest the following models for verses 23-25:

• 23 In the empire’s last days God Most High will raise up three kings.* They** will restore much of the empire, and rule the world 24 and its people with more harshness than any before them. They are called [or, represented by] the eagle’s heads 25 because they will bring to a head [or, to a climax/high point] all the wickedness of the empire. They will be the end of the empire.

• 23 In the end times of the empire God Most High will raise up three kings* who will rule the world. They** will gain back much of the power that the kings before them had, and rule the world 24 and its people with more harshness … They will be the last kings to rule [the empire].
* Some ancient translations kings; Latin kingdoms.
** Some ancient translations They; Latin He.

Quoted with permission from Bullard, Roger A. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on 1-2 Esdras. (UBS Helps for Translators). Miami: UBS, 2019. For this and other handbooks for translators see here.