“Navajo (Dinė) distinguishes between a man’s son or daughter and a woman’s son or daughter by the use of different terms for each. So the gender of Zion had to be determined. The problem was settled when a friend called to our attention a number of verses in the Old Testament where Zion is referred to as “she” or “her”, e.g. Ps. 87:5, 48:12, Is. 4:5, 66:8. The term for a woman’s daughter is biché’é, so the “daughter of Zion” became Záiyon biché’é ‘Zion her-daughter’.” (Source: Faye Edgerton in The Bible Translator 1962, p. 25ff. .)
In the English translation by Goldingay (2018) it is translated as Miss Tsiyyon (or: Zion).
The Hebrew, Latin, Ge’ez, and Greek that is translated into English as “chariot” is translated into Anuak as “canoe pulled by horse.” “Canoe” is the general term for “vehicle” (source: Loren Bliese). Similarly it is translated in Lokạạ as ukwaa wạ nyanyang ntuuli or “canoe that is driven by horses.” (Source: J.A. Naudé, C.L. Miller Naudé, J.O. Obono in Acta Theologica 43/2, 2023, p. 129ff. )
Other translations include:
Chichicapan Zapotec: “ox cart” (in Acts 8) (ox carts are common vehicles for travel) (source: Loren Bliese)
Chichimeca-Jonaz, it is translated as “little house with two feet pulled by two horses” (source: Viola Waterhouse in Notes on Translation August 1966, p. 86ff.)
HausaCommon Language Bible as keken-doki or “cart of donkey” (source: Andy Warren-Rothlin)
The Hebrew, Ge’ez, and Greek that is typically translated as “sin” in English has a wide variety of translations.
The Greek ἁμαρτάνω (hamartanō) carries the original verbatim meaning of “miss the mark” and likewise, many translations contain the “connotation of moral responsibility.”
Loma: “leaving the road” (which “implies a definite standard, the transgression of which is sin”)
Navajo (Dinė): “that which is off to the side” (source for this and above: Bratcher / Nida)
Toraja-Sa’dan: kasalan, originally meaning “transgression of a religious or moral rule” and in the context of the Bible “transgression of God’s commandments” (source: H. van der Veen in The Bible Translator 1950, p. 21ff. )
Bariai: “bad behavior” (source: Bariai Back Translation)
Sandawe: “miss the mark” (like the original meaning of the Greek term) (source for this and above: Ursula Wiesemann in Holzhausen / Riderer 2010, p. 36ff., 43)
Nias: horö, originally a term primarily used for sexual sin. (Source: Hummel / Telaumbanua 2007, p. 256)
In Shipibo-Conibo the term is hocha. Nida (1952, p. 149) tells the story of its choosing: “In some instances a native expression for sin includes many connotations, and its full meaning must be completely understood before one ever attempts to use it. This was true, for example, of the term hocha first proposed by Shipibo-Conibo natives as an equivalent for ‘sin.’ The term seemed quite all right until one day the translator heard a girl say after having broken a little pottery jar that she was guilty of ‘hocha.’ Breaking such a little jar scarcely seemed to be sin. However, the Shipibos insisted that hocha was really sin, and they explained more fully the meaning of the word. It could be used of breaking a jar, but only if the jar belonged to someone else. Hocha was nothing more nor less than destroying the possessions of another, but the meaning did not stop with purely material possessions. In their belief God owns the world and all that is in it. Anyone who destroys the work and plan of God is guilty of hocha. Hence the murderer is of all men most guilty of hocha, for he has destroyed God’s most important possession in the world, namely, man. Any destructive and malevolent spirit is hocha, for it is antagonistic and harmful to God’s creation. Rather than being a feeble word for some accidental event, this word for sin turned out to be exceedingly rich in meaning and laid a foundation for the full presentation of the redemptive act of God.”
Martin Ehrensvärd, one of the translators for the DanishBibelen 2020, comments on the translation of this term: “We would explain terms, such that e.g. sin often became ‘doing what God does not want’ or ‘breaking God’s law’, ‘letting God down’, ‘disrespecting God’, ‘doing evil’, ‘acting stupidly’, ‘becoming guilty’. Now why couldn’t we just use the word sin? Well, sin in contemporary Danish, outside of the church, is mostly used about things such as delicious but unhealthy foods. Exquisite cakes and chocolates are what a sin is today.” (Source: Ehrensvärd in HIPHIL Novum 8/2023, p. 81ff. )
Following are a number of back-translations as well as a sample translation for translators of Micah 1:13:
Kupsabiny: “You who live in Lachish, prepare your horses and carts, since you were those who first held on to sin and spread it to the city of Jerusalem. The sins of Israel were found in/among you.” (Source: Kupsabiny Back Translation)
Newari: “Oh, inhabitants of Lachish, tie your horses to the chariots. It is you who are the beginning of the sin to the daughter Zion. Because it was with you that the transgressions of Israel were found.” (Source: Newari Back Translation)
Hiligaynon: “Residents of Lakish, [you (plur.)] hitch-up your (plur.) horses with chariots and flee. You (plur.) have-followed the sin of those (who) come-from-Israel, and because of you those (who) come-from-Jerusalem have- also -been-led-to-sin.” (Source: Hiligaynon Back Translation)
In this verse the wordplay is between Lachish and to the chariots, in Hebrew larekesh. Again the prophet speaks directly to the people of the town, and Good News Translation places You that live in Lachish first, where it sounds best in English. Translators should follow the natural way of addressing people in their own languages.
A chariot is a two-wheeled cart pulled by two horses and normally used in war. Usually two or three people would ride in it, one to drive and the others to fight. The people of Lachish are told to hitch the horses to the chariots in order to run away from the enemies, not to fight them. The idea is that the enemies are very close and are about to capture the town. In some languages it may be clearer to talk about “fastening (or tying) the chariots to the horses.”
The charge brought against Lachish is that it was the first town in Judah that imitated the sins of Israel. The way in which this was done is not clear. The suggestions that scholars accept as most probable is that Lachish was the Last Judean town on the road to Egypt, and thus grew rich through trading with Egypt in horses (see 1 Kgs 10.28-29). Its prosperity then encouraged its people to follow the example of the northern kingdom and trust in material wealth rather than in the Lord. (A similar attitude, also connected with horses and with Egypt, is condemned in Isa 31.1-3.) Such an attitude would soon have spread to the capital city of Jerusalem, and in this way Lachish could have been the evil influence that caused Jerusalem to sin.
You imitated the sins of Israel is literally “in you were found the transgressions of Israel” (Revised Standard Version). You here refers to the people of Lachish. They committed the same sort of sins that the people of Israel, the northern kingdom, had been committing and which brought God’s punishment on them. It is probably enough to say “You did the same evil things that the people of Israel did.” However, if the translator wants to follow Good News Translation and suggest that they were actually imitating or copying the people of Israel, it may be necessary to go into more detail: “You saw the evil things that the people of Israel were doing, and you decided to do them too.”
The sins of the people of Lachish caused Jerusalem to sin, presumably because the people of Jerusalem copied what they saw the people of Lachish doing. The text says literally that Lachish was “the beginning of sin to the daughter of Zion” (Revised Standard Version). Jerusalem was built around the hill called Mount Zion, so the city and its inhabitants were known figuratively as “the daughter of Zion,” and this term is common in the writings of the prophets. It is not likely that this literal expression would be understood in many languages; here it simply means “the people of Jerusalem.”
The people of Lachish did not of course force the people of Jerusalem to sin, but they were simply the bad example that the people of Jerusalem followed. Therefore in some languages it may be better to say “The people of Jerusalem saw your evil deeds and did the same things, and so they sinned because of you.”
Note that the two ideas in this sentence (You imitated the sins of Israel and you caused Jerusalem to sin) are connected in opposite ways by Good News Translation and Revised Standard Version, though the meanings are the same. In the order of Good News Translation, the action that came first in time is put first, followed by the result of this action (and so). In Revised Standard Version (which follows the Hebrew) the prophet’s main point is put first (“you caused Jerusalem to sin”), followed by the explanation of how it was that they did this (“because you imitated the sins of Israel”). Each translator will need to decide which order is best in his own language.
Quoted with permission from Clark, David J. et al. A Handbook on Micah. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 1978, 1982, 1993. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .
Harness your chariot horses, O dweller of Lachish: In this sentence, Micah spoke to the people who lived in the town of Lachish. It was an important town that King Rehoboam of Judah had fortified (see 2 Chronicles 11:5–12). That means that there were soldiers, horses, chariots, and other fighting equipment in the town.
There are two ways to interpret Micah’s words in this verse part:
(1) The inhabitants should prepare to flee from the enemy. They should ride in chariots to get away. For example:
Harness your chariot horses and flee, you people of Lachish. (New Living Translation (2004))
(New Living Translation (2004))
(2) The inhabitants should prepare to fight the enemy. For example:
Get the war chariots ready, you people of Lachish. (Contemporary English Version)
(Contemporary English Version)
Almost all commentaries clearly support interpretation (1). Most English versions are ambiguous. They say only that the people should harness the horses to the chariots. It is recommended that you leave the purpose for harnessing the horses implicit if possible. If that is not possible in your language, you should follow interpretation (1). The first two meaning lines in the Display will leave the purpose implied. The third meaning line will make it explicit.
Harness your chariot horses: In Hebrew, this clause is literally “Harness the chariot to the steed.” Most English versions reverse this order (“Harness the steeds to the chariots” (New Revised Standard Version)). Use whatever order is natural in your language.
Micah used the definite article “the” two times in this sentence: “Harness the steeds to the chariots.” He was referring to the horses and chariots that were in Lachish. In some languages, it may be better to use the pronoun your or to not use a definite article. For example:
People in Lachish! Tie horses to your(plur) chariots.
Another example is the New Living Translation (2004) (quoted above).
In Hebrew, “steed” and “chariot” are singular. Perhaps Micah used these singular words to refer to each horse or team of horses that pulled a chariot. For example:
harness the team to the chariot (New International Version) -or-
Harness the chariot to the team of horses (New American Standard Bible)
Most versions uses plural forms. Use whatever is natural in your language.
Harness: This word means “to tie or fasten horses to the chariots.” People tied special ropes or straps on the horses and tied these ropes to the chariot. The horses pulled the chariot. Here is another way to translate this word:
hitch the horses to the chariots (NET Bible)
chariot horses: This phrase refers to a team of two or more horses that worked together to pull a chariot. See the New International Version, New American Standard Bible, and Good News Translation (quoted above) for some ways to translate this phrase.
chariot: The word chariot refers to two-wheeled carts pulled by one or more horses. One or more people rode in a chariot. In languages that do not use a specific word such as chariot, it may be possible to use a general term such as “carts” or “war carts.”
In some areas, people do not know about horses and chariots. If that is true in your area, you may want to translate the implied purpose in interpretation (1) without mentioning either of these words. For example:
You people in Lachish! Prepare to flee from your enemies.
horses…Lachish: Micah made a pun in this sentence. In Hebrew, the word translated as horses sounds like the name of the city Lachish.
You may want to use a footnote to help your readers understand this pun. For example:
Lachish sounds like the Hebrew term for “team of horses.” (New Living Translation (2004) footnote)
If you do not use footnotes, you may decide to include the meanings of the place and the pun in your translation. For example:
And you who live in Lachish, ⌊the name of your town sounds like “horses,” so⌋ fasten your horses to your chariots.
O dweller of Lachish: In Hebrew, these words are at the end of the sentence. In some languages, this may be the natural place to put these words. In other languages, it may be more natural to put this phrase at the beginning of the sentence. For example:
You who live in Lachish, harness the team to the chariot. (New International Version)
Put this phrase in a place that is natural in your language.
1:13b
You were the beginning of sin to the Daughter of Zion: In this sentence, Micah said that the people of Lachish were the beginning of sin to the people of Jerusalem.
You: In Hebrew, this pronoun is either “she” or “it.” The pronoun refers to Lachish in 1:13a.
the beginning of sin: Lachish was the beginning of sin to Jerusalem in the sense that the people of Lachish were the first ones to lead (encourage, influence) the people of Jerusalem to do a certain sin. Here are some other ways to translate 1:13b:
You were the first to lead the people of Zion into sin. (God’s Word) -or-
Jerusalem’s sins started in you (New Century Version) -or-
You influenced Daughter Zion to sin (NET Bible)
sin: Micah did not specify a particular sin. Almost all English versions leave the kind of sin implied. Commentaries interpret the nature of the sin in two main ways:
(1) The sin was idolatry, including the worship of Baal.
(2) The sin was relying on military power instead of God.
It is likely that some of the people were guilty of one or both of these sins. Commentaries slightly favor interpretation (1), but it is recommended that you use a general word for sin and leave the specific sin implied.
If your translation uses footnotes, you may want supply a footnote that summarizes the specific sins that were probably implied. For example:
The sin that Micah was talking about was probably the sin of worshiping idols, specifically Baal (see 1 Kings 16:26–32). But the sin may also have been that Lachish led the nation to trust the power of war chariots instead of the LORD.
the Daughter of Zion: This phrase is a poetic way to refer to the people who live in Jerusalem. Here are some other ways to translate this phrase:
Jerusalem (Good News Translation) -or-
the people of Jerusalem -or-
the people of Zion (God’s Word)
If you use a translation like one of these, you may want to use a footnote to give the literal translation. For example:
Hebrew: the daughter of Zion (New Living Translation (2004) footnote) -or-
1:13b “the people of Jerusalem.” What it says in Hebrew is: the daughter of Zion.
1:13c
for: This word (ki in Hebrew) is a conjunction that marks a reason. Micah used it here to give evidence for what he said in 1:13b. For example:
Because (New American Standard Bible)
Some versions leave the reason implied. For example:
the crimes of Israel can be traced to you (New Jerusalem Bible)
In some languages, it may be more natural to change the order of the clauses so that the reason precedes the result. For example:
You imitated the sins of Israel and so caused Jerusalem to sin. (Good News Translation)
the transgressions of Israel were found in you: This clause means that the people in Lachish rebelled against the LORD and broke his laws in the same way that the people of Israel did.
the transgressions of Israel: See the note on the word “transgression” at 1:5a for more information about the meaning of that word.
Israel: The name Israel refers here to the people in the northern kingdom. Lachish was a city in Judah, the southern kingdom. But the people in Lachish did the same kind of evil things.
were found: This is probably a figurative way of saying that the transgressions of Israel also occurred in Lachish. Here are some ways to translate this clause:
You imitated the sins of Israel… (Good News Translation) -or-
you broke the same laws ⌊of God⌋ that the people of Israel broke -or-
you imitated the people of Israel and broke ⌊God’s⌋ laws in the same way that they did
General Comment on 1:13b–c
In some languages, it may be clearer to reverse the order of 1:13b and c. For example:
c You people of Lachish are guilty of breaking ⌊God’s⌋ laws, just like the people of Israel did. b And so you were the first to cause the people of Jerusalem to sin.
Translate 1:13b–c in the order that is natural and clear in your language.
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