The Hebrew that is translated as “fine leather” or “badger/porpoise skin” in English is translated in Kutu as ng’hwembe ya mhala or “skins of bushbuck” (for bushbuck, see here ). (Source: Pioneer Bible Translators, project-specific translation notes in Paratext)
In Yao, it is translated as “soft leather of a big sea animal” (source: UBS, project-specific translation notes in Paratext), in Newari as “dolphin skin” (source: Newari Back Translation), in Kupsabiny as “hides of a hippo” (source: Kupsabiny Back Translation), and in Opo as “soft skins” (source: Opo Back Translation).
The English Jewish Orthodox ArtScroll Tanach translation (publ. 2011) transliterates it as tachash-hide. (Source: Zetzsche)
This animal is only mentioned in Scripture with regard to the leather made from its skin. It is clear that its hide made very good leather. The King James Version’s “badger” and Revised Standard Version’s “goat” are almost certainly mistranslations. New English Bible’s “porpoise” has more support since an Arabic word very similar to the Hebrew refers to the porpoise or dolphin. However catching sufficient porpoises to make a covering for the tabernacle would have been problematic for the Israelites since these animals live entirely in the sea while the Israelites were not a seagoing nation.
However, some local Bedouin tribes that live near the sea have for centuries made sandals and other articles from the skins of an animal called dugong and many modern scholars interpret tachash as referring to this animal. New International Version and New English Bible (margin) have “sea cow”. The dugong, which swims slowly and feeds on underwater weeds near the shore, is fairly easy to catch in nets.
The Dugong (Dugong dugong) is a large animal about 3 meters (10 feet) long, which lives in the sea, usually in small herds of twelve to fifteen animals. They swim slowly and feed in fairly shallow water on underwater weeds near mouths of rivers. They sometimes even move a short distance up the river. They need to come to the surface every few minutes to breathe, and they sometimes come out of the water to lie on rocks or sandbanks.
Although they have flippers rather than legs and a tail that looks like that of a large fish dugongs are mammals. They have soft fur. They do not lay eggs but give birth to babies and feed them on milk from their breasts. They are found in fairly large numbers even today in the Gulf of Aqaba and the Red Sea and are also found along the tropical coasts of East Africa, South Asia, Madagascar, Malaysia, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Australia and the Solomon Islands. They have also been reported in Taiwan.
Dugongs are distantly related to seals. They are pale gray in color and the male has small tusks in its upper jaw. They are harmless and unsuspicious animals and are easy to catch. Dugong skins are fairly thick soft and long-wearing and make high quality leather. The fur is usually left on the leather.
Three very similar animals are the Senegal Manatee Trichechus senegalensis, which is found in West Africa, the Caribbean Manatee Trichechus manatus, which is found on the coasts and in the lagoons of the Caribbean islands and Florida, and the South American Manatee Trichechus inunguis, which is found in the Amazon and Orinoco rivers.
Where dugongs and manatees are known, the best choice will be the word for one of the three mentioned in the previous paragraph. In areas where they are not known, the word for the seal can be used. Where seals are also not known, a more general expression such as “good soft leather” or “furs” is better than trying to name the animal. It is the skin rather than the animal that is in focus in all cases.
Following are a number of back-translations as well as a sample translation for translators of Exodus 25:5:
Kupsabiny: “(They) should also give that tree/wood that is called acacia, ram skins which are colored red and hides of a hippo.” (Source: Kupsabiny Back Translation)
Newari: “ram skins dyed red and another type of durable leather; acacia wood;” (Source: Newari Back Translation)
Hiligaynon: “skin of the male sheep that is-dyed red, fine kinds of skin, acacia wood,” (Source: Hiligaynon Back Translation)
Bariai: “and male sipsips’ skins on which they rubbed red paint, and dugong skins, and some akas tree/wood pieces.” (Source: Bariai Back Translation)
Opo: “with skins of sheep/goats which they apply and red stuff, and skins which be soft, and tree white-acacia,” (Source: Opo Back Translation)
English: “rams’ skins that have been tanned/dyed red, goatskins, hard wood from acacia trees,” (Source: Translation for Translators)
The plural form of shittah (shittim) is used sometimes as a place name (see Shittim), which is evidence of the wide distribution of this tree in Sinai and southern Palestine. The acacia referred to in the Bible was of two kinds, the Umbrella Thorn Acacia Acacia tortilis and the Common Acacia Acacia raddiana.
The Acacia tortilis is found in the hot Arabah Valley, whereas the Acacia raddiana tends to be found in cooler conditions throughout Sinai. A third variety (Acacia albida) is found in lowland Israel, the Sharon Plain, and lower Galilee. The common acacia was the only tree available to the Israelites for construction of the Tabernacle.
Both types of acacia are short, reaching 3-5 meters (10-17 feet) tall, but having a wide crown. As members of the Mimosa family, they have sharp spines, finely divided leaves, and tiny pale yellow flowers arranged in drooping bunches. The bean pod they produce is twisted and looped when dry.
Since the acacia is widespread in dry areas of Africa, Arabia, India and Australia, translators in those areas should be able to use a local word. In such languages a local species should be used, especially one that is used for building. Elsewhere, if none of these is available, the translator can transliterate from Hebrew (shittah) or from a major language, for example, sunt or talh (Arabic), akasiya (English/French/Spanish via Latin). West African translators need to beware of confusing “acacia” and “cassia,” a common tree with yellow flowers.
Acacia raddiana, photo by Ray PritzAcacia flowers, photo by Gloria Suesss
Before the time of Abraham at least five breeds of sheep had already been developed in Mesopotamia. From mummified remains (that is, preserved dead bodies) and ancient art it is also known that at least two different breeds had reached Egypt by about 2000 B.C. Thus it is likely that the sheep mentioned in the Bible were of more than one breed.
The Hebrew word kar seems to be used of imported foreign sheep and may refer to a special breed but some scholars think it refers to a wether (castrated ram), since this word is never used in the context of sacrifice. This word is also used for a battering ram, that is, a heavy pole suspended on a rope, used in war for breaking down walls. ’Ayil is the word for a ram or adult male sheep, rachel is a breeding ewe or female sheep, and taleh is a very young lamb, probably still unweaned. The remaining Hebrew words refer to sheep in general.
The Greek word probaton is the general word for sheep, or flocks that may include goats. Krios is the Greek word for a ram or male sheep. Pascha is a technical name for the Passover lamb exclusively, and the remaining Greek words all mean lamb. Ovis is the Latin word for sheep.
Click or tap here for the rest of this entry in United Bible Societies’ All Creatures Great and Small: Living things in the Bible.
The early Hebrews were nomadic shepherds to whom sheep were the most important domestic animal. While goats eat almost any vegetation, sheep are much more selective about the grasses and plants they eat. This meant that suitable grazing for them was not always easy to find, and shepherds had to keep moving their flocks from place to place. This led to a nomadic lifestyle, with movable tents rather than houses being the normal household shelter. It was not until the occupation of Canaan after the Exodus that the lifestyle of the Israelites changed, and they became settled village-dwelling farmers and fruit growers.
However, even then, most households owned sheep, and some family members would function as shepherds, often living away from home for fairly long periods.
Sheep in the Bible were a source of meat, milk, wool, hides, and horns, and it seems likely that various strains were bred selectively to enhance production of these commodities. Wool is mentioned in the Bible as early as the Mosaic Law, which forbade the weaving of cloth containing both wool and plant fibers. The shearing of sheep is mentioned even earlier, in Genesis 31:19. Wool was in fact the most common and available fiber known to the people of Israel.
There was a very extensive wool trade in biblical times, stretching from Egypt to China. In the Middle East wool was cheaper than cotton or linen, which were the other common fibers. (Silk was known by the time of Solomon, but it was extremely expensive as it was produced in China and handled by numerous traders on its way west.) It would be a mistake to think of all wool at that time as being white, as Genesis 30 indicates quite clearly that there were also dark colored sheep and sheep that had dark and light patches, probably varying combinations of black, white, and brown.
We can be fairly sure that one breed of sheep known to the Israelites was the Fat-tailed Sheep Ovis laticaudata and that its fatty tail is referred to in Exodus 29:22, Leviticus 3:9 et al.
Rams’ horns had a variety of uses. Whole ram horns were used as drinking vessels, jars, and trumpets. But pieces of horn were used as handles for knives and other household implements, and for jewelry such as bracelets and beads. Needles too, and probably also arrow heads, were made from horn, as well as from bone and later from bronze and iron.
Sheep were also very important in Israelite religion. They were a very important element in the sacrificial system and in the traditional religious feasts, especially the Feast of Passover.
Sheep and goats belong to the same general family. They differ in that sheep produce wool, which is a special type of soft hair, among the ordinary hairs on their bodies. A ram’s horns too differ in shape from a goat’s horns, those of a ram curling down in a tight spiral beside its face, with those of a goat curving more gently back towards its shoulders. The sheep of biblical times produced much shorter wool than is common with wool-bearing breeds of today.
The fat-tailed or broad-tailed sheep is a smallish breed usually brown and white with a very broad tail. Like most other breeds of sheep in the Middle East it has large floppy ears.
Sheep are generally fairly timid animals, lacking the self-confidence and adaptability of goats. While goats will spread out in their search for food and then regroup without much difficulty, sheep become very insecure when they are separated from other sheep and tend to stay bunched together. They thus require a lot of shepherding. In the Middle East the method of shepherding involves training the dominant ram to follow the shepherd. The remaining sheep then follow this dominant ram, which often wears a wooden clapper or a bell. As they feed, the sheep usually keep within earshot of this sound. It is likely that this method is centuries old.
In most modern breeds only male sheep have horns, but in most ancient breeds female sheep had short horns too. This made separating sheep from goats in a single flock more difficult than it is today.
Of all animals the sheep was the most important for the Israelite nation. It had great religious, social, and economic importance.
The metaphor of a lamb is used in the New Testament to refer to Christ, with an emphasis on his being a sacrifice for the sin of the world. This is especially the case in John’s gospel and Revelation. In the latter book the metaphor is introduced in a very striking way. In Revelation 5:5 as the writer is mourning the fact that no one can be found to open the scroll, he is comforted by one of the elders who tells him that “the Lion of the tribe of Judah” has triumphed and can thus open the scroll. Then the writer, expecting to see the Lion, sees instead a Lamb that looks as if it has been killed for sacrifice. The remainder of the book is then concerned with describing the triumph of this Lamb over the forces of evil.
In the gospels Jesus also refers to his disciples as “sheep” and “lambs” (Matthew 10:17; John 10:1 et al.).
The metaphor of the shepherd is extended to God himself who is the ultimate “Shepherd of Israel” (Psalms 23:1; 80:1). Then those who are responsible for the nurture, guidance, ruling, and protection of Israel, be it kings, prophets, or priests, are also likened to shepherds (Isaiah 56:11; Jeremiah 23:4; 49:19; Ezekiel 34:2; Zechariah 10:2).
The Messiah is also called a shepherd (Isaiah 40:11), and Jesus refers to himself as “the good shepherd” (John 10:11). In Hebrews 13:20 he is referred to as “the great shepherd of the sheep” and in 1 Peter 2:25 he is called “the Shepherd and Guardian of your lives”.
In languages that have a word for sheep, it is advisable to translate according to the meanings given above. If possible, the feminine forms should be translated as “female lamb” or “female sheep”. In languages in which sheep are not known, a word has usually been coined or borrowed by the time Bible translation begins, and this word should be used. It is not advisable to substitute another locally well-known animal in this case, since doing so negates the ritual and symbolic importance that sheep had for the biblical cultures.
In translating Psalms 23:1 it is extremely important to make sure that the phrase “my shepherd” preserves the relationship intended by the writer and reflects the psalmist’s theme that Yahweh is his benefactor, protector, and guide. There are really two metaphors involved in the opening verse-the caring shepherd (God) and by clear implication, the dependent sheep (the psalmist). In many languages the literal phrase “my shepherd” depicts a wrong relationship, meaning something like “the one who looks after my sheep” or “the one I employ to watch my sheep.” In many African languages unwary translators have produced a rendering that means “The Chief is (nothing more than) my herdsman.” It is often necessary to restructure the whole verse as something like “I am a sheep, and the lord is my shepherd.”
The process of tanning the skins of animals to make leather resulted in giving them a reddish color. In some languages translators may follow Good News Translation‘s rendering, “ram’s skin dyed red.” However, in cultures where the process of tanning is not known, one may say, for example, “ram [or, male sheep] skins that are made red” or “… that they have made red.” Goatskins is literally “skins of tachashim,” but the meaning of the Hebrew tachashim is not known. Translator’s Old Testament has “porpoise” and New Jewish Publication Society’s Tanakh has “dolphin,” but more likely it was a sea animal similar to the “sea cow” (New International Version), or dugong, which is similar to the manatee. It is doubtful that it was a goat. New Revised Standard Version has followed Good News Translation, New Jerusalem Bible, and Contemporary English Version in translating “fine leather.” One may also say “fine tanned animal skins,” or simply “soft animal skins.” Acacia wood refers to wood of the shittah tree, a variety of acacia that is hard and durable. Where the acacia tree is unknown, one may say, for example, “wood from the tree called ‘acacia.’ ” It will also be helpful to include a note in the Glossary describing an acacia tree.
Oil for the lamps is literally “oil for the luminary [or, source of light].” The oil was made from olives, the fruit of the olive tree, and was used in the ordinary clay lamps. These were probably small bowl-shaped objects, filled with olive oil, with a wick floating in them. One end of the wick extended onto a lip of the bowl, where the oil in the wick burned and provided light. In many languages it will be sufficient to say “oil” here without identifying the oil. But in cultures that must differentiate between machine and vegetable oil, it will be necessary to state that this is “oil from the fruit ‘olive.’ ” (See the comment on “olives” at 23.11.)
Spices for the anointing oil refers to the various spices listed in 30.23-24 that were used to make the special oil for anointing the priests as well as the different parts of the tabernacle. The Hebrew word for “anoint” means to pour, sprinkle, or rub the oil on a person or on an object. This indicated that the person was appointed for special service, or that the object was designated as holy and set apart for special use. (See 29.7 and 30.25-26.) In some languages these spices will be called “sweet-smelling spices,” while in others “fragrant [or, sweet-smelling] plants [or, grasses].” The entire phrase, spices for the anointing oil, may be expressed as “fragrant things to mix with the oil for anointing the sacred tent and the priests.” The fragrant incense, described in 30.34-35, required a different list of spices. The Israelites valued spices for their aroma rather than for food seasoning and used them in perfume, cosmetics, and embalming oils. In a number of languages fragrant incense will be expressed as “fragrant spices for burning.” An alternative model for spices … the fragrant incense is “fragrant plants to mix with the oil for anointing the sacred tent and the priests,” or “grasses that smell good when burned.”
Onyx stones, literally “stones of onyx,” refers to precious stones from a type of dark quartz with milky white bands. Good News Translation has “carnelians,” which is a reddish quartz, and New Jewish Publication Society’s Tanakh has “lapis lazuli,” which is a bluish quartz. The precise identity of the stone is not known. If these stones are not known, one may say “precious [or, expensive] stones called onyx” or “precious stones called carnelian.” Two of these stones were to be fastened to the shoulder straps of the ephod (28.12), and another was to be one of the twelve stones fastened to the breastpiece for the high priest (28.20).
And stones for setting refers to the other precious stones or “jewels” (Good News Translation) listed in 28.17-20. The word for setting comes from a word that means to fill. It refers to the frame or bed into which a jewel is mounted.
The ephod was an apron-like garment worn by the high priest. It is described in 28.6-14. Many translations have transliterated the term. However, it will be more meaningful to say something like “the priestly apron.” It will also be helpful to include a Glossary note describing this object. The breastpiece was a special pouch or pocket that was fastened to the ephod. It was about 9 inches square and held the Urim and Thummim, with which the high priest was able to determine the will of God. The twelve precious stones were mounted on it. It is described in 28.15-30. In some languages a descriptive phrase will be needed; for example, “the sacred pouch over the chest of the high priest” or “the pocket [or, pouch] over the heart….”
Quoted with permission from Osborn, Noel D. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on Exodus. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 1999. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .
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