liquidambar (Oriental sweetgum𖺗 storax)

The Hebrew word tsori (“balm”) may be the basis for the word “storax,” which Zohary (Plants of the Bible. Cambridge University Press, 1982) takes to be a name for the dried resin of the liquidambar Liquidambar orientalis, a tree that is also called kataf or nataf in Hebrew.

The Hebrew word nataf does not occur outside of Exodus 30:34 in the Bible. The Septuagint renders it staktē, which New Revised Standard Version, updated edition transliterates as “stacte.” According to Zohary, nataf is a synonym of tsori (= storax), which is found six times in the Bible. The liquidambar (or storax) is a tree that used to grow widely in the Middle East and Turkey.

The liquidambar tree grows to 10 meters (33 feet) tall, and has deeply incised leaves with five points and round yellow flowers on a 4 centimeter (2 inch) stalk. The fruits are prickly. The sticky gray-brown gum is produced by making cuts in the trunk of the tree.

The Jeremiah and Ezekiel references indicate that tsori was medicinal. We conclude from Exodus 30:34 that it was aromatic. Genesis 37:25 shows that it was highly valued in trade with Egypt.

The genus Liquidambar was widespread many thousands of years ago, according to fossil evidence, but it disappeared from Europe when the glaciers came. The surviving species, apart from orientalis in the Middle East, are formosana in South China and Taiwan and styraciflua in the eastern United States and Central America.

The references to tsori in Genesis and Ezekiel are non-rhetorical, as is nataf in Exodus. If Zohary is correct, and the translator wants to be specific, then a transliteration of “storax” may be used in these passages. Alternatively, in Exodus 30:34 translators can use a generic expression such as “resin” or “gum resin”; that is, they can use their local word for the globs of hardened sap that come from trees that produce it.

If a word for “sweet-smelling healing ointment” exists, it can be used for tsori in Genesis. Tsori is the second of three spices the Ishmaelite traders carried in Genesis 37:25, the other two being neko’th (“gum”) and lot (“myrrh” or “resin”). Translators can cover all three words with a phrase such as “different kinds of sweet-smelling medicine and incense.” Transliteration is also possible, from Hebrew tsori or Arabic nakaa/nakati. “Balm” in English is not a good basis for transliteration.

Liquidambar trunk, Wikimedia Commons

Source: Each According to its Kind: Plants and Trees in the Bible (UBS Helps for Translators)

offering

The Hebrew that is translated as “offering” in English is translated in Venda as nduvho. J. A. van Rooy (in The Bible Translator 1974, p. 439ff. ) explains: “It is derived from the verb u luvha (‘to pay homage to; to acknowledge the superiority of; at the same time usually asking for a favour’). It is sometimes used as a synonym for ‘asking something from a chief. The noun nduvho means ‘a gift of allegiance,’ which corresponds closely with minchah (מִנְחָה) as ‘offering of allegiance.’ This term nduvho has in it the elements of subjugation, of reciprocity (asking for a favor), of being taken up into the same community as the chief in allegiance to him. Only the element of expiation is missing.”

In Northern Emberá, it is translated as “given to God freely.” (Source: Loewen 1980, p. 108)

See also offering (qorban).

fat, oil

The different Hebrew and Greek terms that are translated as “(olive) oil” and “(animal) fat” in English are translated in Kwere with only one term: mavuta. (Pioneer Bible Translators, project-specific translation notes in Paratext)

terebinth

The Hebrew words ’elah and ’alah refer to any of three species of terebinth mentioned in the Bible: 1) the Atlantic terebinth Pistacia atlantica, 2) the Palestinian terebinth Pistacia palaestina, and 3) the Lentisk Terebinth Pistacia lentiscus, also called the mastic tree.

According to Zohary (Plants of the Bible, Cambridge University Press, 1982), the Atlantic terebinth, also called the teil tree, is found in the Negev, Lower Galilee, and the Dan Valley. Hepper (Baker Encyclopedia of Bible Plants, Baker Book House, 1992) says it was once abundant in Gilead, the trunk and bark being a possible source for aromatic resin (mastic) exported to Egypt. It is a dry-land tree that grows in the border areas between ever-green woodlands and the dwarf-shrub steppes (note “valley of Elah” in 1 Samuel 17:2 et al.). The nuts of the Atlantic terebinth are used for dyeing and tanning animal skins, but they can be eaten if roasted. They are often sold in Arab markets, are bigger than the nuts of the Palestinian terebinth, and are quite different from the true pistachio nuts.

The Palestinian terebinth is found mostly on wooded hills, often together with the common oak. Its little round nuts can be eaten whole, fresh, or roasted, and it is probably these nuts (boten) that were carried to Egypt by the sons of Jacob (Genesis 43:11).

The lentisk terebinth is a shrub or bush that grew in the hills of Gilead, and may be the source of the “balm/resin” (tsori in Hebrew) carried by the Ishmaelites in Genesis 37:25, and by the sons of Jacob to Egypt along with pistachio nuts in Genesis 43:11. The fact that Genesis 37:25 et al. all mention Gilead in connection with the resin tsori, suggests that its source was a plant unique to Palestine. That is why it could be used to trade for goods from Egypt. The references in Jeremiah (8:22 and 46:11) presumably refer to the salve made from the terebinth resin.

Terebinths look like oaks but have pinnate leaves. The Atlantic terebinth may reach a height of 10 meters (33 feet). The Palestinian terebinth species is shorter, reaching to 5 meters (17 feet). The lentisk terebinth, or mastic (gum) tree, is a small shrub or tree 1-3 meters (3-10 feet) in height that produces a sweet-smelling resin when the stem or branches are cut. The resin dries into hard lumps, which are then ground and dissolved in olive oil for medicinal use, per-fume, incense, varnish, and glue.

Both of the larger terebinths were revered by ancient Israelites and other peoples. They built shrines and altars in the terebinth groves, and sometimes buried people there. The resin of the lentisk terebinth was highly prized for its medicinal value, which is why the Ishmaelites and the sons of Jacob were carrying them as trade goods to Egypt. Sirach 24:16 uses the wide-spreading branches terebinth as a metaphor for wisdom.

Pistacia palaestina, Wikimedia Commons
Pistacia atlantica, Wikimedia Commons
Mastic resin hanging from mastic (Pistacia lentiscus) tree, Wikimedia Commons

Source: Each According to its Kind: Plants and Trees in the Bible (UBS Helps for Translators)

almond

The almond is one of a group of fruit-bearing trees (Prunus) that also includes plums, cherries, peaches, and apricots. There are fifteen species of wild almond in Iran, two wild species in Israel, and one cultivated one (Prunus dulcis, also called Amygdalus communis). They are plentiful now in the hills of Israel, and probably were so in Bible times, even in the hot, dry Negev.

The almond tree grows to around 4 meters (13 feet) tall. It loses its leaves in winter and then, before the new leaves appear in spring, a profusion of white or pink flowers appears. The flowers are quite flat, with oval petals. The fuzzy fruit, about the size of a date palm fruit, comes about ten weeks later. The seed (“nut” in English) is fifty percent oil, and can be eaten raw but is usually roasted.

Three passages make reference to physical features of the almond tree. In Exodus 25:33f. and 37:19f. 20 we find the Hebrew word meshuqad (“almond-like”) referring to the shape of the almond blossom. The flat almond flower made a reasonable model for the lamp holders at the top of the branches of the lampstand in the Tabernacle.

The writer of Ecclesiastes 12:5 uses the profusion of white blossoms on the almond tree as a symbol of old age. The comparison is of course to the white hair of the elders.

In Jeremiah 1:11 the author makes use of the similarity of the Hebrew name shaqed (“almond”) to the word shoqed (“watching” or “wakeful”) to emphasize that Yahweh is “watching” over Israel (see almond tree / watching). Some commentators add to this that since the almond is the first of the trees to blossom in the spring—even before the leaves emerge — it was “waking up early,” and God, likewise, is an “early help” in time of trouble.

The Prunus family has members in various parts of the world, such as Prunus salicina in China and Prunus munsoniana in eastern North America. However, the branches and fruit of many of these are so different from the true almond that in non-figurative passages local names will not really be usable. In a passage such as Genesis 30:37, a transliteration from a major language is recommended; for example, shaked/lus (Hebrew), lawus (Arabic), amande (French), amendoa (Portuguese), almendra (Spanish), and alimondi. In English the “l” is not pronounced, so “almond” may be transliterated amond. Elsewhere, where the tree is used figuratively, as in Exodus and Ecclesiastes (see below), translators can use a blossom with a similar shape and color.

Almond tree, photo by Gloria Suess
Almond flowers, photo by Ray Pritz

Source: Each According to its Kind: Plants and Trees in the Bible (UBS Helps for Translators)

See also almond tree / watching.

complete verse (Genesis 43:11)

Following are a number of back-translations as well as a sample translation for translators of Genesis 43:11:

  • Kankanaey: “So then their father said to them, ‘If that is so, get therefore some of the best that is in this country of ours so that you will take-it-along to arrive-with-it to the governor. What you will take, embalming-spice (balsamo), honey, kinds of perfume, mirra (Sp. loan), and the most-expensive tree fruits.” (Source: Kankanaey Back Translation)
  • Newari: “Then their father Israel said — ‘If it must be like that, do like this. Take along a few presents for that man, different medicines from here, really good honey, spices, myrrh, pistachio and chestnuts.” (Source: Newari Back Translation)
  • Hiligaynon: “Their father said, ‘So, if that is the case, you (pl.) go. [You (pl.)] bring in your (pl.) container the best products here from our (incl.) land in-order to-give-as-gifts to the governor of Egipto: Medicines, honey, spice, perfume, and fruits of pistasyo and almonds/almendro.” (Source: Hiligaynon Back Translation)
  • English: “Then their father Jacob said to them, ‘If there is no other way, do this: Put in your sacks some of the best things that are grown in this land, and take them down to the man as a gift. Take some balm/perfume and honey and spices and myrrh/ointment, some pistachio nuts, and almonds.” (Source: Translation for Translators)

Translation commentary on Genesis 43:11

Jacob finally relents and allows Benjamin to go with his brothers.

Father Israel: see verse 8.

If it must be so, then do this is literally “If so, then do this.” The sense is “If it has to be” or “If there is no other way.” It may not be necessary to translate do this. For example, we may say “If that is the way it has to be, then take some….” See Good News Translation.

Choice fruits of the land: the meaning of the word translated choice fruits is uncertain, because it occurs only here in the Old Testament. However, some expression like “best produce” seems to fit the context well and is required to give a sense of high value to the present; some translations say, for example, “the most valuable things we have produced.” The narrator does not seem concerned to explain the existence of this produce during the severe famine.

Carry down to the man a present: that is, “Take a gift to the ruler of Egypt.”

The choice fruits are named as balm … honey, gum, myrrh, pistachio nuts, and almonds. For balm, gum, and myrrh see 37.25. Honey, both cultivated and wild, is known throughout most of the world; but the other items in the list may not be so well known. Many translations use general terms such as “ointment,” “perfume,” and “nuts,” either along with the actual names of the items or without the names.

Quoted with permission from Reyburn, William D. and Fry, Euan McG. A Handbook on Genesis. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 1997. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .

3rd person pronoun with high register (Japanese)

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Like a number of other East Asian languages, Japanese uses a complex system of honorifics, i.e. a system where a number of different levels of politeness are expressed in language via words, word forms or grammatical constructs. These can range from addressing someone or referring to someone with contempt (very informal) to expressing the highest level of reference (as used in addressing or referring to God) or any number of levels in-between.

One way Japanese shows different degree of politeness is through the choice of a third person singular and plural pronoun (“he,” “she,” “it” and their various forms) as shown here in the widely-used Japanese Shinkaiyaku (新改訳) Bible of 2017. While it’s not uncommon to avoid pronouns altogether in Japanese, there are is a range of third person pronouns that can be used. In these verses a number of them are used that pay particularly much respect to the referred person (or, in fact, God, as in Exodus 15:2), including kono kata (この方), sono kata (その方), and ano kata (あの方), meaning “this person,” “that person,” and “that person over there.”

(Source: S. E. Doi, see also S. E. Doi in Journal of Translation, 18/2022, p. 37ff. )

See also third person pronoun with exalted register.