The Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek that is translated as “cubit” or into a metric or imperial measurement in English is translated in Kutu, Kwere, and Nyamwezi as makono or “armlength.” Since a cubit is the measurement from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger, one armlength (measured from the center of the chest to the fingertips) equals two cubits or roughly 1 meter. (Source: Pioneer Bible Translators, project-specific translation notes in Paratext)
Similarly, in Akoose, the translation is “arm distance.” (Source: Joseph Nkwelle Ngome and Marlie van Rooyen & Jacobus A. Naudé in Communicatio 2009, p. 251ff.)
In Klao it is converted into “hand spans” (app. 6 inches or 12 cm) and “finger spans” (app. 1 inch or 2 cm) (source: Don Slager) and in Bariai into leoa or “fathom,” which comprises the distance from a person’s fingertip to fingertip with arms outstretched, app. 6 feet (source: Bariai Back Translation).
Following are a number of back-translations as well as a sample translation for translators of Ezekiel 40:9:
Kupsabiny: “He also measured the portico/veranda of that gate and found it to be fourteen feet. The pillars that the portico supported itself on had a width of three and a half feet.” (Source: Kupsabiny Back Translation)
Hiligaynon: “and it was 14 feet long. The thickness of the stone-wall on-both-sides of the way of the balcony was three feet.” (Source: Hiligaynon Back Translation)
English: “It was about 14 feet/4.2 meters long, and its supporting columns were 3-1/2 feet/1.1 meters thick. The entry room of the entryway was at the end of the entry hallway that faced the temple and extended into the courtyard.” (Source: Translation for Translators)
Before the time of Abraham at least five breeds of sheep had already been developed in Mesopotamia. From mummified remains (that is, preserved dead bodies) and ancient art it is also known that at least two different breeds had reached Egypt by about 2000 B.C. Thus it is likely that the sheep mentioned in the Bible were of more than one breed.
The Hebrew word kar seems to be used of imported foreign sheep and may refer to a special breed but some scholars think it refers to a wether (castrated ram), since this word is never used in the context of sacrifice. This word is also used for a battering ram, that is, a heavy pole suspended on a rope, used in war for breaking down walls. ’Ayil is the word for a ram or adult male sheep, rachel is a breeding ewe or female sheep, and taleh is a very young lamb, probably still unweaned. The remaining Hebrew words refer to sheep in general.
The Greek word probaton is the general word for sheep, or flocks that may include goats. Krios is the Greek word for a ram or male sheep. Pascha is a technical name for the Passover lamb exclusively, and the remaining Greek words all mean lamb. Ovis is the Latin word for sheep.
Click or tap here for the rest of this entry in United Bible Societies’ All Creatures Great and Small: Living things in the Bible.
The early Hebrews were nomadic shepherds to whom sheep were the most important domestic animal. While goats eat almost any vegetation, sheep are much more selective about the grasses and plants they eat. This meant that suitable grazing for them was not always easy to find, and shepherds had to keep moving their flocks from place to place. This led to a nomadic lifestyle, with movable tents rather than houses being the normal household shelter. It was not until the occupation of Canaan after the Exodus that the lifestyle of the Israelites changed, and they became settled village-dwelling farmers and fruit growers.
However, even then, most households owned sheep, and some family members would function as shepherds, often living away from home for fairly long periods.
Sheep in the Bible were a source of meat, milk, wool, hides, and horns, and it seems likely that various strains were bred selectively to enhance production of these commodities. Wool is mentioned in the Bible as early as the Mosaic Law, which forbade the weaving of cloth containing both wool and plant fibers. The shearing of sheep is mentioned even earlier, in Genesis 31:19. Wool was in fact the most common and available fiber known to the people of Israel.
There was a very extensive wool trade in biblical times, stretching from Egypt to China. In the Middle East wool was cheaper than cotton or linen, which were the other common fibers. (Silk was known by the time of Solomon, but it was extremely expensive as it was produced in China and handled by numerous traders on its way west.) It would be a mistake to think of all wool at that time as being white, as Genesis 30 indicates quite clearly that there were also dark colored sheep and sheep that had dark and light patches, probably varying combinations of black, white, and brown.
We can be fairly sure that one breed of sheep known to the Israelites was the Fat-tailed Sheep Ovis laticaudata and that its fatty tail is referred to in Exodus 29:22, Leviticus 3:9 et al.
Rams’ horns had a variety of uses. Whole ram horns were used as drinking vessels, jars, and trumpets. But pieces of horn were used as handles for knives and other household implements, and for jewelry such as bracelets and beads. Needles too, and probably also arrow heads, were made from horn, as well as from bone and later from bronze and iron.
Sheep were also very important in Israelite religion. They were a very important element in the sacrificial system and in the traditional religious feasts, especially the Feast of Passover.
Sheep and goats belong to the same general family. They differ in that sheep produce wool, which is a special type of soft hair, among the ordinary hairs on their bodies. A ram’s horns too differ in shape from a goat’s horns, those of a ram curling down in a tight spiral beside its face, with those of a goat curving more gently back towards its shoulders. The sheep of biblical times produced much shorter wool than is common with wool-bearing breeds of today.
The fat-tailed or broad-tailed sheep is a smallish breed usually brown and white with a very broad tail. Like most other breeds of sheep in the Middle East it has large floppy ears.
Sheep are generally fairly timid animals, lacking the self-confidence and adaptability of goats. While goats will spread out in their search for food and then regroup without much difficulty, sheep become very insecure when they are separated from other sheep and tend to stay bunched together. They thus require a lot of shepherding. In the Middle East the method of shepherding involves training the dominant ram to follow the shepherd. The remaining sheep then follow this dominant ram, which often wears a wooden clapper or a bell. As they feed, the sheep usually keep within earshot of this sound. It is likely that this method is centuries old.
In most modern breeds only male sheep have horns, but in most ancient breeds female sheep had short horns too. This made separating sheep from goats in a single flock more difficult than it is today.
Of all animals the sheep was the most important for the Israelite nation. It had great religious, social, and economic importance.
The metaphor of a lamb is used in the New Testament to refer to Christ, with an emphasis on his being a sacrifice for the sin of the world. This is especially the case in John’s gospel and Revelation. In the latter book the metaphor is introduced in a very striking way. In Revelation 5:5 as the writer is mourning the fact that no one can be found to open the scroll, he is comforted by one of the elders who tells him that “the Lion of the tribe of Judah” has triumphed and can thus open the scroll. Then the writer, expecting to see the Lion, sees instead a Lamb that looks as if it has been killed for sacrifice. The remainder of the book is then concerned with describing the triumph of this Lamb over the forces of evil.
In the gospels Jesus also refers to his disciples as “sheep” and “lambs” (Matthew 10:17; John 10:1 et al.).
The metaphor of the shepherd is extended to God himself who is the ultimate “Shepherd of Israel” (Psalms 23:1; 80:1). Then those who are responsible for the nurture, guidance, ruling, and protection of Israel, be it kings, prophets, or priests, are also likened to shepherds (Isaiah 56:11; Jeremiah 23:4; 49:19; Ezekiel 34:2; Zechariah 10:2).
The Messiah is also called a shepherd (Isaiah 40:11), and Jesus refers to himself as “the good shepherd” (John 10:11). In Hebrews 13:20 he is referred to as “the great shepherd of the sheep” and in 1 Peter 2:25 he is called “the Shepherd and Guardian of your lives”.
In languages that have a word for sheep, it is advisable to translate according to the meanings given above. If possible, the feminine forms should be translated as “female lamb” or “female sheep”. In languages in which sheep are not known, a word has usually been coined or borrowed by the time Bible translation begins, and this word should be used. It is not advisable to substitute another locally well-known animal in this case, since doing so negates the ritual and symbolic importance that sheep had for the biblical cultures.
In translating Psalms 23:1 it is extremely important to make sure that the phrase “my shepherd” preserves the relationship intended by the writer and reflects the psalmist’s theme that Yahweh is his benefactor, protector, and guide. There are really two metaphors involved in the opening verse-the caring shepherd (God) and by clear implication, the dependent sheep (the psalmist). In many languages the literal phrase “my shepherd” depicts a wrong relationship, meaning something like “the one who looks after my sheep” or “the one I employ to watch my sheep.” In many African languages unwary translators have produced a rendering that means “The Chief is (nothing more than) my herdsman.” It is often necessary to restructure the whole verse as something like “I am a sheep, and the lord is my shepherd.”
And the side rooms, one reed long, and one reed broad: The side rooms are introduced as if the reader knows about them, even though this is the first time they have been mentioned. This is a vivid example of someone describing something they see, without giving all the details. As a result, anyone who cannot see what they see finds it hard to follow the description. Many translators might add something like “Next I saw” or “Then he showed me” to begin verse 7. The side rooms were square, one reed long, and one reed broad, that is, 3 meters by 3 meters, or 10 feet by 10 feet. Ezekiel does not say what these side rooms were used for, but in the town gates of the time, they functioned as guardrooms, where guards would be positioned to protect the town. Many translations assume that the rooms in the new Temple would have the same function, so they call them “guardrooms” (Good News Translation, Contemporary English Version, New American Standard Bible, Jerusalem Bible/New Jerusalem Bible, Christian Community Bible, Complete Jewish Bible, Moffatt) or “rooms for the guards” (New Century Version; similarly New International Reader’s Version). But this is not certain, so it is better to call them “alcoves” (New International Version), “recesses” (New Revised Standard Version, New Jewish Publication Society’s Tanakh) or “small rooms,” provided that the term chosen is consistent with a room 3 meters (10 feet) square.
In verse 10 we read that there were six side rooms, three on either side of a central passage. Some languages may find it clearer to bring that information up to verse 7; for example, Good News Translation begins verse 7 with “Beyond it there was a passageway, which had three guardrooms on each side” (similarly Contemporary English Version). Another possible model is “Then I saw a passageway, which had three small rooms on each side.”
And the space between the side rooms, five cubits: The Hebrew text does not have a word for space, since this phrase does not refer to an open space, but to a solid wall; the Septuagint clearly understood it to mean this. It refers to the walls that separated the side rooms from each other, so Good News Translation renders the space between the side rooms as “the walls between them.” These walls were five cubits, that is, 2.5 meters (8 feet), thick.
And the threshold of the gate by the vestibule of the gate at the inner end, one reed: The focus of attention now moves to the other end of the east gatehouse. The inner end (literally “from the house”) refers to the end of the gatehouse that was nearest to the Temple. This was the opposite end to the one the man first entered and where he began measuring. Good News Translation and New Century Version refer to this other end of the gatehouse as the one that “faced the Temple” (similarly Contemporary English Version, New International Version, New International Reader’s Version, Revised English Bible, Complete Jewish Bible, Moffatt, Die Bibel im heutigen Deutsch). At the inner end of the gatehouse was a vestibule, which may be rendered “entrance room” (Good News Translation, Contemporary English Version), “foyer” (New Living Translation [1996]), or “porch” (New International Reader’s Version, New Century Version, King James Version, New American Standard Bible, Jerusalem Bible/New Jerusalem Bible, Christian Community Bible). This porch looked out into the outer courtyard toward the Temple. Between the porch (vestibule) and the passageway with the six small rooms was another threshold, or doorway. Like the other end of the gatehouse, this doorway was one reed, that is, 3 meters (10 feet) deep.
Then he measured the vestibule of the gateway, eight cubits: The porch itself was eight cubits, that is, 4 meters (13 feet), long.
And its jambs, two cubits: Its jambs refers to the sides of the opening between the porch and the Temple’s outer courtyard. Other possible models for the Hebrew word rendered jambs (also New International Version, English Standard Version, Jerusalem Bible, Christian Community Bible, Moffatt) are “pilasters” (New Revised Standard Version, Revised English Bible, New American Bible), “posts” (King James Version), “gateposts” (New King James Version ), “doorposts” (New International Reader’s Version), “doorway” (Contemporary English Version), and “doorframe.” Some translators will need to describe these jambs as “sides of the opening between the porch and the courtyard.” There is no suggestion that this opening had any doors or gates, so it is most likely that the sides of the opening were solid square stone walls, as Good News Translation implies. These walls would have been used as the doorframe, if doors had been hung there. The jambs were two cubits, that is, 1 meter (3 feet), thick.
And the vestibule of the gate was at the inner end: This clause repeats that the porch was at the end of the gatehouse that was nearest to the Temple.
In Hebrew verses 8-9a read “8 And he measured the vestibule of the [inner] gateway from [that is, facing] the house; it was one reed. 9 And he measured the vestibule of the gateway; it was eight cubits” (similarly King James Version/NJKV, New American Standard Bible, English Standard Version, Complete Jewish Bible, New Jewish Publication Society’s Tanakh). This is a blatant contradiction that makes no sense. Probably a scribe accidentally copied the last five Hebrew words of verse 7 a second time after the first few words of verse 9 which are very similar to the words in verse 7. Therefore we recommend that translators delete the reference in verse 8 to “one reed” (that is, 6 cubits), and simply record that the length of the porch was 4 meters (13 feet).
A model for verses 7b-9 is:
• At the far end of the gatehouse was [or, I saw] a porch that faced toward the Temple. The doorway between the last small room and the porch was 3 meters deep. 8 Then he measured the porch of the gatehouse. It was 4 meters long. 9 The walls at the opening between the porch and the Temple courtyard were one meter thick. The porch was at the very end of the gatehouse, nearest to the Temple.
Quoted with permission from Gross, Carl & Stine, Philip C. A Handbook on Ezekiel. (UBS Helps for Translators). Miami: UBS, 2016. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .
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