oak

Three species of oak are found in Israel, the main ones being the Tabor oak and the Kermes (or common) oak. Both go by the name ’elon or ’allon in Hebrew. The similarity to the Hebrew word ’el (“god”) is significant, since these trees have long been associated with worship and with burial. Since the Tabor oak is the biggest, it is likely that ’elon and ’allon most often refer to that one. English versions have sometimes mistakenly translated the Hebrew word ’elah (“terebinth”) as “oak.”

According to Hepper (Baker Encyclopedia of Bible Plants, Baker Book House, 1992), forests of Kermes oak (Quercus calliprinos or Quercus coccifera) covered the hill country of Israel from Carmel to Samaria in biblical times. The Kermes oak forest is the most familiar and important type of vegetation in Israel.

The Tabor Oak Quercus macrolepsis (= Quercus aegilops = Quercus ithaburensis = Valonea oak in Israel) apparently replaced the original common oak during the Arab period (800–1400 A.D.), but has itself been nearly destroyed in more recent times by the efforts of charcoal makers, limestone burners, and the Turkish rail-way. Tabor oaks are deciduous and are found mostly in Carmel.

The large Tabor oak reaches a height of 25 meters (82 feet), branching at around 5.5 meters (18 feet). The Kermes oak is more like a large shrub, normally branching at ground level. The Tabor oak loses its leaves every winter; the Kermes oak is evergreen and prickly.

Oaks were used to mark grave sites (see Genesis 35:8), and it is possible that the references to “oak of Moreh” or “oaks of Mamre” may hint at burial sites of famous people. They were probably also important in divination, if the reference in Judges 9:37 (see Translation commentary on Judges 9:37) to a “Diviners’ Oak” can be taken as typical. References to people named Allon (1 Chronicles 4:37) or Elon (Genesis 46:14 et al.) may suggest that the oak was a symbol of strength or beauty, or both.

Oaks grow mainly in temperate areas (Europe, North America, North Asia, and Japan) and the Mediterranean area, including North Africa. Translators in tropical areas will not have a local variety as an option. In historical contexts, therefore, it will be necessary to transliterate from a major language. In poetic contexts such as the prophets, the oak typically represents a large and very strong tree, and a local species with those characteristics can be considered.

Tabor oak, photo by Ray Pritz
Kermes oak, Wikimedia Commons

Source: Each According to its Kind: Plants and Trees in the Bible (UBS Helps for Translators)

plane

Zohary (Plants of the Bible. Cambridge University Press, 1982) confidently equates the ‘armon of Ezekiel 31:8 with Oriental Plane Platanus orientalis, mostly on the basis of the fact that Arabs call it dilba, which is derived from the Aramaic. The name ‘armon may come from the Hebrew word ‘erom meaning “naked,” referring to the way the bark peels off, leaving the seemingly naked trunk.

Plane trees may have been abundant in the past, if the common name “Wadi Dilb” is related to the Arabic dilba. In the present day, plane trees are fairly common in the upper Jordan Valley and its tributaries. It is widespread throughout the eastern Mediterranean region and in the hills of Iraq and Iran.

The plane tree is large and wide-spreading, with big branches and lobed, hairy leaves shaped like a hand. In Israel it can reach a height of 20 meters (66 feet) and the trunk 50 centimeters (2 feet) in diameter. Its flowers are small and green. The small seeds are contained in round, bristly fruits, which, when open, release the seeds with plumes that carry them great distances on the wind.

In Genesis 30:37 Jacob presumably chose to use branches of the plane tree because its bark can easily be peeled off in strips, exposing the white or yellow inner layer. In ancient times the plane tree was praised as a shade tree by the Greeks, Romans, and Persians. Ezekiel 31:8 associates planes, cedars, and beroshim (“cypresses” or “Grecian junipers”) with the “garden of God,” suggesting special beauty. In Sirach 24:14 wisdom is compared to the plane as a beautiful, big tree.

True plane trees are limited to Europe and North America, apart from the species that grows in the eastern Mediterranean region and Iran. (A wild maple tree in Britain is misleadingly called a “plane.”) Translators in Asia, Latin America, and Africa will have no local species available for the story of Jacob’s goat-breeding experiment in Genesis 30:37 and will have to consider a transliteration in keeping with the other trees mentioned there (poplar and almond). However, the passage in Ezekiel 31:8, where the plane is used in a metaphorical context, leaves room for local equivalents. Egypt, in this passage, is compared to a mighty cedar, against which other trees, such as the plane and the fir, do not match up. Rendering “plane” here will depend on what the translator does with the other trees.

Platanus orientalis, Wikimedia Commons

Source: Each According to its Kind: Plants and Trees in the Bible (UBS Helps for Translators)

nigella

The English versions of Isaiah 28:25 and 27 reveal the confusion of the translators who have encountered the Hebrew word qetsach. It has been rendered “fitches,” “dill,” “fennel,” and “caraway.” Against all of these renderings, Zohary (Plants of the Bible. Cambridge University Press, 1982) confidently asserts that the word qetsach refers to the nigella plant Nigella sativa, also called by the names “nutmeg flower,” “black cumin,” “black seed,” “charnushka,” and “kalonji.” The Aramaic and Arabic equivalent is qatscha. Jews, Arabs, and Europeans use nigella seeds to decorate cakes and bread up to the present. It is also used as a spice in cooking.

Nigella is planted and harvested annually. It grows to around 30 centimeters (1 foot) in height and has a lacy leaf like dill or carrot and a greenish-blue flower with five petals. The base of the flower becomes a seedpod that contains many round, black, sharp-smelling seeds.

Nigella is used by Isaiah as one of several species in a parable he tells to the leaders of Israel. A farmer, he says, does not destroy the results of one season’s work while preparing for that of the next season. This is spoken to know-it-all scoffers who claim that God’s ways are completely fixed. Against that Isaiah says that God’s ways are according to the conditions of his creatures, as a farmer plants and harvests according to the needs of the various crops.

The abundance of names for nigella is an indication of its popularity around the world. Fortunately the Latin name nigella is now replacing the confusing name “black cumin.” This is good because cumin is a totally different plant. Likewise, “nutmeg flower” and “black caraway” are losing favor. So translators can avoid the confusion brought on by the English by transliterating from a major language.

Nigella, Wikimedia Commons

Source: Each According to its Kind: Plants and Trees in the Bible (UBS Helps for Translators)

cassia

Zohary (Plants of the Bible. Cambridge University Press, 1982) is confident that the substance referred to by the Hebrew words qiddah and qetsi‘ah is oil or powder derived from the leaves, twigs, or bark of the cassia Cinnamomum cassia, a tree found in East Asia. The name “cassia” may possibly come from the Khasi people of north-eastern India and Bangladesh; earlier they lived in the area of Assam and Burma and were involved in the ancient cassia trade. So cassia oil may have been brought into Israel from East Asia. However, with respect to “cassia” and “cinnamon” in Exod 30:23 and 24, Hepper (Baker Encyclopedia of Bible Plants: Flowers and Trees, Fruits and Vegetables, Ecology. Baker Book House, 1992) argues that these spices were probably not Asian spices as has often been supposed. Quoting research by Lucas and Harris on ancient Egyptian materials, he says that there is no evidence of these Asian spices in tombs in Egypt. If they were being transported by the deprived Israelites, why were they not used by the more prosperous Egyptians? Further, how was Moses to have access to these substances in remote Sinai? Hepper favors southern Arabia and northeastern Africa as sources for fragrant barks and resins.

Asian cassia trees grow to 10 meters (33 feet) tall. They have distinctive opposite leaves with three lighter-colored veins or ribs radiating from the base. Their rather small flowers droop in bunches.

Cassia is closely related to the well-known spice, cinnamon. In fact, much of the “cinnamon” sold in North America is cassia. Europeans and South Americans tend to use the real cinnamon from Sri Lanka and elsewhere. Since cassia is native to East Asia, translators there will know it by a local name. Since the passages that refer to cassia are non-rhetorical, translators elsewhere may transliterate this term from a major language. Cassia is of the genus Cinnamomum, which is completely different from the genus Cassia of which there are many species in Africa. So transliterations based on “cassia” are potentially misleading in Africa. To avoid a wrong association with African cassia (which is not aromatic), African translators could do one of the following:

1. transliterate from the Hebrew qiddah;
2. transliterate from English (kasiya) and write a footnote saying this tree has no relationship to the cassia tree of Africa;
3. substitute a well-known sweet-smelling gum.

Cassia, Wikimedia Commons

Source: Each According to its Kind: Plants and Trees in the Bible (UBS Helps for Translators)

terebinth

The Hebrew words ’elah and ’alah refer to any of three species of terebinth mentioned in the Bible: 1) the Atlantic terebinth Pistacia atlantica, 2) the Palestinian terebinth Pistacia palaestina, and 3) the Lentisk Terebinth Pistacia lentiscus, also called the mastic tree.

According to Zohary (Plants of the Bible, Cambridge University Press, 1982), the Atlantic terebinth, also called the teil tree, is found in the Negev, Lower Galilee, and the Dan Valley. Hepper (Baker Encyclopedia of Bible Plants, Baker Book House, 1992) says it was once abundant in Gilead, the trunk and bark being a possible source for aromatic resin (mastic) exported to Egypt. It is a dry-land tree that grows in the border areas between ever-green woodlands and the dwarf-shrub steppes (note “valley of Elah” in 1 Samuel 17:2 et al.). The nuts of the Atlantic terebinth are used for dyeing and tanning animal skins, but they can be eaten if roasted. They are often sold in Arab markets, are bigger than the nuts of the Palestinian terebinth, and are quite different from the true pistachio nuts.

The Palestinian terebinth is found mostly on wooded hills, often together with the common oak. Its little round nuts can be eaten whole, fresh, or roasted, and it is probably these nuts (boten) that were carried to Egypt by the sons of Jacob (Genesis 43:11).

The lentisk terebinth is a shrub or bush that grew in the hills of Gilead, and may be the source of the “balm/resin” (tsori in Hebrew) carried by the Ishmaelites in Genesis 37:25, and by the sons of Jacob to Egypt along with pistachio nuts in Genesis 43:11. The fact that Genesis 37:25 et al. all mention Gilead in connection with the resin tsori, suggests that its source was a plant unique to Palestine. That is why it could be used to trade for goods from Egypt. The references in Jeremiah (8:22 and 46:11) presumably refer to the salve made from the terebinth resin.

Terebinths look like oaks but have pinnate leaves. The Atlantic terebinth may reach a height of 10 meters (33 feet). The Palestinian terebinth species is shorter, reaching to 5 meters (17 feet). The lentisk terebinth, or mastic (gum) tree, is a small shrub or tree 1-3 meters (3-10 feet) in height that produces a sweet-smelling resin when the stem or branches are cut. The resin dries into hard lumps, which are then ground and dissolved in olive oil for medicinal use, per-fume, incense, varnish, and glue.

Both of the larger terebinths were revered by ancient Israelites and other peoples. They built shrines and altars in the terebinth groves, and sometimes buried people there. The resin of the lentisk terebinth was highly prized for its medicinal value, which is why the Ishmaelites and the sons of Jacob were carrying them as trade goods to Egypt. Sirach 24:16 uses the wide-spreading branches terebinth as a metaphor for wisdom.

Pistacia palaestina, Wikimedia Commons
Pistacia atlantica, Wikimedia Commons
Mastic resin hanging from mastic (Pistacia lentiscus) tree, Wikimedia Commons

Source: Each According to its Kind: Plants and Trees in the Bible (UBS Helps for Translators)

cinnamon

True cinnamon Cinnamomum verum (or Cinnamomum zeylanicum) is a tree found mostly in Sri Lanka, India, and Burma. The Hebrew word qinnamon may ultimately derive from an early form of the Malaysian/Indonesian expression kayu manis, meaning “sweet wood.” As in the case of cassia, there is debate about whether the cinnamon mentioned in the Old Testament could have been imported from the Far East or whether there was perhaps a spice from Arabia or Africa that was named qinnamon, because this name was known at the time of writing. Some scholars believe that there was trade between India and Egypt as early as the second millennium B.C. In fact, the renowned Egyptian queen Hatshepsut is thought to have brought myrrh or frankincense trees from “Punt,” which could have been Somalia or even India, in 1490 B.C. However, she apparently did not bring cinnamon trees, nor are cinnamon and cassia among the spices found in the tombs of Egypt. So the true identity of the biblical cinnamon is still in question.

The true cinnamon tree grows to 10 meters (33 feet) in height. The stem branches plentifully. The leathery leaves are 10-15 centimeters (4-6 inches) in length and have three light-colored, radiating veins. The spongy outer bark is scraped off, revealing a fragrant pale brown inner bark. This inner bark carries the cinnamon flavor. It is cut off and dried, and the bark curls to form little scrolls. The small flowers have an unpleasant smell.

According to Exodus 30:23, cinnamon was an ingredient of the holy oil used to anoint the Tabernacle, ark, and priests. The temptress of Proverbs 7:17 perfumes her bed with it, together with myrrh and aloes. Today the bark of cinnamon is ground into powder and used as a spice for food and as an ingredient in incense and perfume. Even the leaves and unripe berries (“buds”) are marketed as condiments.

Translators in Asia will be able to use their own word for cinnamon. They will even be able to distinguish between cassia and cinnamon. In other areas it is best to transliterate from Hebrew qinnamon or a major language. Since the bark was ground into powder, the words “bark” or “powder” may be useful as classifiers. In Exodus 30:23 and 24 translators will need two words for the closely related cassia and cinnamon.

Cinnamon tree with bark removed, Wikimedia Commons

Source: Each According to its Kind: Plants and Trees in the Bible (UBS Helps for Translators)

willow

There are two kinds of willow in Palestine, the White Willow Salix alba being the northern one, and the Common Willow Salix acmophylla being the southern, more heat-tolerant one. In the Jordan Valley the willow gives way to the salt-tolerant Euphrates poplar as the river gets close to the Dead Sea. Some confusion of names arises from the fact that the Euphrates poplar has two kinds of leaves. The younger shoots produce a narrow leaf like the willow, and the mature shoots produce a wider, ovate leaf.

The willow is found along streams, where it can grow to a height of 6 meters (20 feet). It has long, narrow leaves which drop during the winter and the tiny green flowers appear around October.

If “willow” is indeed the correct translation of ‘aravah in Leviticus (23:40), then it is one of the four species recommended for use in building shelters for the Festival of Shelters. In Job it is the habitat of the mysterious Behemoth that no man can tame. In Isaiah and Ezekiel it is a metaphor for something that grows luxuriantly.

Over three hundred Salix species are found around the world in temperate regions. They are sometimes known as ossiers or sallows. At least one Salix species (Safsaf Willow Salix subserrata) is found in sub-Saharan Africa in addition to being found in Egypt, Libya, and Israel. Flora of West Tropical Africa lists three other species. People who make round, thatched houses use thin, flexible sticks from a shrub to form the concentric rings that hold the radial sticks (either bamboo or sorghum stalks) in place. Some of these may be willows, and if so, the local word would be appropriate in the biblical context where shelters are being constructed.

In Isaiah 44:4 and Ezekiel 17:5 the willow is symbolic of quick growth and may require an appropriate local equivalent of a thriving plant.

Salix acmophilla, Wikimedia Commons

Source: Each According to its Kind: Plants and Trees in the Bible (UBS Helps for Translators)

reed

There are two general types of reed in Israel, the Common Reed Phragmites australis and the Giant Reed Arundo donax, and it is impossible to say which one is intended in a given biblical context.

The English word “cane” comes from the Hebrew word qaneh. Qaneh is the most general Hebrew word of the many referring to reeds and rushes. Like the English word “reed,” it may refer to a specific type of reed or be a general name for several kinds of water plant. This word is also used to refer to the stalk of grain in Pharaoh’s dream (Genesis 41:5, Genesis 41:22), to the shaft and branches of the golden lampstand in the Tabernacle (Exodus 25:31 et al.), to the beam of a scale (Isaiah 46:6), to the upper arm of a person (Job 31:22), to a measuring stick (Ezekiel 40:3 et al.), and to aromatic cane (Song of Songs 4:14 et al.).

The Greek word kalamos is also used to refer to a measuring stick (Revelation 11:1 et al.) and to a pen (3 John 1:13 and 3 Maccabees 4:20).

The common reed is a tall grass with stiff, sharply-pointed leaves and a plume-like flower head that reaches to more than 2 meters (7 feet). It grows in lakes and streams, the roots creeping across the bottom of the lake to produce new leaves and stalks.

The giant reed is similar to the common reed but tends to grow not in the water but on the river banks. Its majestic plumes can reach up to 5 meters (17 feet) in height on hollow stalks that look like bamboo.

Reeds of both kinds were used for baskets, mats, flutes, pens, arrows, and roof-coverings. Isaiah 42:3 says that the Messiah will be gentle with weak people (“a bruised reed he will not break”), in contrast to the typical iron-fisted tyrants of the day. The Pharaoh is likened to an undependable reed staff in 2 Kings 18:21 et al. In 1 Kings 14:15 Israel is compared to a reed shaking in the water.

The common reed of the Mediterranean area has relatives in Europe, India, Japan, and North America. It is thought to be the only species of the genus Phragmites (although some botanists divide it into three species). It is very important for conservationists, because it provides habitat for many kinds of animals and birds. In North America the weaker native type is being overtaken by more robust types from Europe, which are now threatening other kinds of marsh plants. In Japan people eat the young shoots of reeds. Native Americans used to eat the seeds.

Translators living near lakes and rivers will be able to find an equivalent, if not a relative, of the reed. Others can be generic and use “grass” or a phrase such as “tall grass growing in the water.”

Common reed, photo by Rob Koops

Source: Each According to its Kind: Plants and Trees in the Bible (UBS Helps for Translators)

In Newari it is translated as “bamboo.” (Source: Newari Back Translation)