myrrh

The Greek and Hebrew that is translated as “myrrh” in English is translated as “bitter medicine” in Michoacán Nahuatl and as “myrrh perfume” in Tzotzil (source: Ronald D. Olson in Notes on Translation January, 1968, p. 15ff.).

In Mark 15:23, Usila Chinantec translates it as “the herb myrrh which is useful so that one not feel pain in his body.” (Source: B. Moore / G. Turner in Notes on Translation 1967, p. 1ff.)

 

Myrrh is probably the most precious spice in the Bible. It was worth more than its weight in gold. Our experts agree that the Hebrew word mor refers to the resin of one of the Commiphora genus, either myrrha, abyssinica or schimperi, all of which grew in what is now Yemen, Ethiopia, Somalia, and Madagascar. Other kinds of myrrh may have come from India (Commiphora erythraea, Commiphora opobalsamum). A more difficult question is the meaning of the word deror in Exodus 30:23. In the other places where it occurs it means “freedom” or “liberty.” This is the basis for the word “liquid” in some versions, but there is no certainty that “free” means “liquid.” The fact that myrrh was sometimes mixed with wine may suggest that deror means “liquid” here, but on the other hand, the weight of the myrrh is given in dry measure rather than liquid measure, which argues against it.

The myrrh plant is a bush or shrub with thick thorny branches that project and bend at odd angles. The leaves come in sets of three. The fruit is oval like a plum. The wood and bark have a pleasant smell. The gum oozes naturally from the branches, though some harvesters incise the branches to increase the flow. The sap or gum is clear or yellowish brown when it comes out, but gets darker as it dries. The taste of the gum is bitter (note the similarity of mor to the Hebrew word mar meaning “bitter”). In markets the gum is often found mixed with that of the kataf bush (bisabol).

God prescribed myrrh as an ingredient of the holy anointing oil (Exodus 30:23), and it is used as perfume in Esther, Psalms, Proverbs, and eight times in Song of Songs. It was brought as an expensive gift by the Magi to the new King (Matthew 2:11). As Jesus was dying on the cross, sympathetic bystanders may have offered it to him mixed with wine (Mark 15:23; see the parallel account in Matthew 27:34). Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus brought a mixture of myrrh and aloes to prepare Jesus’ body for burial (John 19:39). In ancient Egypt myrrh was burned on the altars of the sun god, and in Persia it was attached to the crowns of kings when they appeared in public. Romans burned myrrh at funerals and cremations, which helps to explain its inclusion in the list of spices in Revelation 18:13. Today it is used in perfumes, lotions, and even in toothpaste.

Varieties of myrrh grow in the Horn of Africa and Madagascar, so people from those areas should have no difficulty finding words for it. As to whether the myrrh in Exodus 30:23 was liquid or solid, there seems to be no consensus, and the translator may be forgiven for simply ignoring the Hebrew word deror . Possible transliterations are Hebrew mor, Arabic mar, French mireh, and Spanish/Portuguese mirra.

Harvesting myrrh, Wikimedia Commons

Source: Each According to its Kind: Plants and Trees in the Bible (UBS Helps for Translators)

See also mixture of myrrh with aloes.

opobalsamum (balsam; balm)

The Hebrew word bosem, which is often rendered “balm” (derived from “balsam”), can refer to any type of aromatic healing substance, but it also designates the product of a particular tree, the balsam or opobalsamum Commiphora gileadensis. Arabs call it balasam or balasham. In the Talmud it is called afarsimon. Excavations near En Gedi have uncovered an ancient processing plant for balsam oil.

The opobalsamum tree likes a desert or semi-desert climate. It grows to 2‑3 meters (7‑10 feet) tall and has small, wrinkled, three-part leaves, white flowers, and pea-sized red berries that have a fragrant yellow seed inside. The bark of younger branches is gray, turning brown with age. The resin appears by itself in green droplets from the stems and branches, but collectors also make cuts in the branches to speed the process. The droplets turn from green to brown, clump together, and fall to the ground, where they are collected.

In Bible times, balsam oil was used in holy anointing oil, as medicine, and as an ingredient of perfume.

A generic word or phrase for sweet-smelling substances is appropriate to render bosem, although where a specific name for the balsam tree is available, as in southwestern Arabia and Somalia, this could also be used. At least one hundred species of the genus Commiphora are spread throughout dry areas of the world. Translators in some areas will know the plants; others may know only the dried resin of Commiphora sold in spice markets.

Balsam tree, Photo by Nigel Hepper

Source: Each According to its Kind: Plants and Trees in the Bible (UBS Helps for Translators)

cinnamon

True cinnamon Cinnamomum verum (or Cinnamomum zeylanicum) is a tree found mostly in Sri Lanka, India, and Burma. The Hebrew word qinnamon may ultimately derive from an early form of the Malaysian/Indonesian expression kayu manis, meaning “sweet wood.” As in the case of cassia, there is debate about whether the cinnamon mentioned in the Old Testament could have been imported from the Far East or whether there was perhaps a spice from Arabia or Africa that was named qinnamon, because this name was known at the time of writing. Some scholars believe that there was trade between India and Egypt as early as the second millennium B.C. In fact, the renowned Egyptian queen Hatshepsut is thought to have brought myrrh or frankincense trees from “Punt,” which could have been Somalia or even India, in 1490 B.C. However, she apparently did not bring cinnamon trees, nor are cinnamon and cassia among the spices found in the tombs of Egypt. So the true identity of the biblical cinnamon is still in question.

The true cinnamon tree grows to 10 meters (33 feet) in height. The stem branches plentifully. The leathery leaves are 10-15 centimeters (4-6 inches) in length and have three light-colored, radiating veins. The spongy outer bark is scraped off, revealing a fragrant pale brown inner bark. This inner bark carries the cinnamon flavor. It is cut off and dried, and the bark curls to form little scrolls. The small flowers have an unpleasant smell.

According to Exodus 30:23, cinnamon was an ingredient of the holy oil used to anoint the Tabernacle, ark, and priests. The temptress of Proverbs 7:17 perfumes her bed with it, together with myrrh and aloes. Today the bark of cinnamon is ground into powder and used as a spice for food and as an ingredient in incense and perfume. Even the leaves and unripe berries (“buds”) are marketed as condiments.

Translators in Asia will be able to use their own word for cinnamon. They will even be able to distinguish between cassia and cinnamon. In other areas it is best to transliterate from Hebrew qinnamon or a major language. Since the bark was ground into powder, the words “bark” or “powder” may be useful as classifiers. In Exodus 30:23 and 24 translators will need two words for the closely related cassia and cinnamon.

Cinnamon tree with bark removed, Wikimedia Commons

Source: Each According to its Kind: Plants and Trees in the Bible (UBS Helps for Translators)

reed

There are two general types of reed in Israel, the Common Reed Phragmites australis and the Giant Reed Arundo donax, and it is impossible to say which one is intended in a given biblical context.

The English word “cane” comes from the Hebrew word qaneh. Qaneh is the most general Hebrew word of the many referring to reeds and rushes. Like the English word “reed,” it may refer to a specific type of reed or be a general name for several kinds of water plant. This word is also used to refer to the stalk of grain in Pharaoh’s dream (Genesis 41:5, Genesis 41:22), to the shaft and branches of the golden lampstand in the Tabernacle (Exodus 25:31 et al.), to the beam of a scale (Isaiah 46:6), to the upper arm of a person (Job 31:22), to a measuring stick (Ezekiel 40:3 et al.), and to aromatic cane (Song of Songs 4:14 et al.).

The Greek word kalamos is also used to refer to a measuring stick (Revelation 11:1 et al.) and to a pen (3 John 1:13 and 3 Maccabees 4:20).

The common reed is a tall grass with stiff, sharply-pointed leaves and a plume-like flower head that reaches to more than 2 meters (7 feet). It grows in lakes and streams, the roots creeping across the bottom of the lake to produce new leaves and stalks.

The giant reed is similar to the common reed but tends to grow not in the water but on the river banks. Its majestic plumes can reach up to 5 meters (17 feet) in height on hollow stalks that look like bamboo.

Reeds of both kinds were used for baskets, mats, flutes, pens, arrows, and roof-coverings. Isaiah 42:3 says that the Messiah will be gentle with weak people (“a bruised reed he will not break”), in contrast to the typical iron-fisted tyrants of the day. The Pharaoh is likened to an undependable reed staff in 2 Kings 18:21 et al. In 1 Kings 14:15 Israel is compared to a reed shaking in the water.

The common reed of the Mediterranean area has relatives in Europe, India, Japan, and North America. It is thought to be the only species of the genus Phragmites (although some botanists divide it into three species). It is very important for conservationists, because it provides habitat for many kinds of animals and birds. In North America the weaker native type is being overtaken by more robust types from Europe, which are now threatening other kinds of marsh plants. In Japan people eat the young shoots of reeds. Native Americans used to eat the seeds.

Translators living near lakes and rivers will be able to find an equivalent, if not a relative, of the reed. Others can be generic and use “grass” or a phrase such as “tall grass growing in the water.”

Common reed, photo by Rob Koops

Source: Each According to its Kind: Plants and Trees in the Bible (UBS Helps for Translators)

In Newari it is translated as “bamboo.” (Source: Newari Back Translation)

Translation commentary on Exodus 30:22 - 24

Moreover, the LORD said to Moses is literally “And Yahweh spoke to Moses saying.” (See the comment above and at 25.1.)

Take the finest spices: the word translated spices at times refers specifically to the balsam tree or to the fragrant oily substance it secretes. But here it refers in general to similar substances from other trees or shrubs as well. The use of the colon in Revised Standard Version and the dash in Today’s English Version are attempts to show that the four substances mentioned are all spices. Since the colon and the dash are only punctuation marks and are not read aloud, it may be better to say “Take the finest spices as follows:….” These spices were not edible but were used mainly for perfumes and cosmetics. (See the comment at 25.6.)

Of liquid myrrh is literally “myrrh of flowing.” This substance came from a plant in southern Arabia and may have been available in liquid form. The “free-flowing myrrh” (New American Bible) would have been “fresh myrrh” (New Jerusalem Bible), and probably the best quality. However, it may have been marketed in the form of “sticks” (Revised English Bible), or even ground into powder (Durham), since this substance hardens slowly when exposed to the air. In cultures where myrrh is unknown, one may say, for example, “a sweet-smelling plant resin [or, sap] named ‘myrrh.’ ” New Jewish Publication Society’s Tanakh has “solidified myrrh.” Five hundred shekels is literally just “five hundred”; shekels is implied from verse 24. It was evidently to be measured by weight rather than by volume. This would be about “12 pounds” (Today’s English Version), or “six kilograms.” (See the comment on shekels at 21.32.)

And of sweet-smelling cinnamon is literally “and cinnamon [of] balsam,” using the same word for sweet-smelling (besem) that is earlier used for spices. Cinnamon comes from the inner bark of a tree found mainly in Ceylon (Sri Lanka), and has a pleasing taste as well as a pleasing odor. It is often dried or ground into a powder to be used as a spice. Sweet-smelling makes it more specific, since some kinds of cinnamon are not so fragrant. In cultures where cinnamon is unknown, one may say, for example, “a sweet-smelling powder named ‘cinnamon.’ ” Half as much is literally “its half,” meaning half of the five hundred shekels. That is, two hundred and fifty is literally “fifty and two hundred.” That is has been added. This was about “six pounds” (Today’s English Version), or “three kilograms.”

And of aromatic cane is literally “and reeds of balsam.” The same word has been translated earlier as spices and sweet-smelling. This is generally understood to refer to a fragrant kind of reed that came from India, although its exact identity is not known. King James Version and American Standard Version call it “sweet calamus,” but this is now doubtful. New Jerusalem Bible has “scented reed,” and Durham has “cane spice.” One may also express it as “a sweet-smelling reed [or, cane] named ‘balsam,’ ” or more simply, “a sweet-smelling reed [or, cane],” as the name is not certain. Two hundred and fifty is the same as for the cinnamon.

And of cassia probably refers to the coarse bark of a tree similar to cinnamon, native to India and Sri Lanka. It is similar to cinnamon but inferior in quality. One may also translate as “a sweet-smelling substance named ‘cassia.’ ” Five hundred is the same measure as for the liquid myrrh. According to the shekel of the sanctuary is identical with verse 13. (See the comment there.) This reference to the shekel evidently applies to the measurement of all four spices.

And of olive oil a hin is literally “and oil of olive a hiyn.” The Hebrew word is usually transliterated. It was a unit of liquid measure, approximately equal to “one gallon” (Today’s English Version), or “four liters.” It will be possible in some languages to place this sentence at the beginning of the verse, using the idea of blended from the following verse, and translate
• Mix a gallon of olive oil with the following sweet-smelling substances: twelve pounds of myrrh, six pounds of cinnamon, six pounds of cane, and twelve pounds of cassia. Measure these according to the official [or, correct] standard.

Such a restructuring also frees the translator from repeating the words “sweet-smelling” before each of the listed items.

Quoted with permission from Osborn, Noel D. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on Exodus. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 1999. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .