tamarisk

There are two main species of tamarisk referred to in the Bible, the Leafless Tamarisk Tamarix aphylla and the much more common Nile Tamarisk Tamarix nilotica. Both species are found throughout the plains and in the wadis (dry stream beds) of the Aravah and the Negev, where they tap water that has soaked into the ground after flash floods. Tamarisks can grow in salty soil, earning them the name “salt cedar” in some places. A third species grows only in the Jordan Valley. None of them has proper leaves but rather fleshy twigs, which are eaten by goats and sheep.

Description  The leafless tamarisk grows to a height of 10 meters (33 feet) and can be 1 meter (3 feet) across at the base. The more common Nile tamarisk is smaller and is really a shrub, branching right from the ground. Tamarisks grow in very dry places due to the fact that their roots extend far into the ground. The trunk is often twist-ed. The cedar-like branches hang down like those of the weeping willow. Bedouin shepherds have planted many of them throughout the Negev for their flocks.

The fact that Abraham planted a tamarisk and worshiped Yahweh there (Genesis 21:33) indicates that these trees, like oaks, were associated with the spirit world. According to Zohary (Plants of the Bible. Cambridge University Press, 1982), the “cedar” branches mentioned in the cleansing rituals of Leviticus 14:4 and Numbers 19:6 may possibly have been from tamarisks, although Phoenician juniper trees (very similar to cedar) were also available in some places on the journey of the wandering Israelites. Imported into the western United States, tamarisks have multiplied so fast in stream beds that they are now considered a costly nuisance. In some places they are used in making dyes and in processing leather.

The options for translating “tamarisk” are:

1. Transliterate from a major language, for example, tamarisiki, tamaris, esheli (Hebrew), or eteli/atali (Arabic).
2. Consider the function of the tree, which in Genesis was almost certainly connected to Abraham’s worship of God, and translate as “holy tree” perhaps with a footnote giving the Hebrew and/or English, especially if you have used “holy tree” in Gen 12.6 for “oak.”
3. Simply use “tree” with a footnote stating that the Hebrew specifies ’eshel, that is, tamarisk.

Leafless tamarisk, Wikimedia Commons
Nile tamarisk, Wikimedia Commons

Source: Each According to its Kind: Plants and Trees in the Bible (UBS Helps for Translators)

poplar

There are several species of poplar in the Middle East, and that has given rise to some controversy over which one is referred to by a particular Hebrew word. Two kinds of poplar were common in Israel in Bible times, the white poplar and the Euphrates poplar.

In Genesis 30:37 (see also plane) Jacob’s magical recipe for multiplying sheep and goats relied on the light inner wood of the white poplar Populus alba, a tree that grows along riverbanks in Israel. This softwood tree with gray bark was used for timber and for making tools and rafters. In some places the bark is used as medicine.

The Euphrates poplar Populus euphratica likewise grows along riverbanks, but it is much more widespread in the Middle East than the white poplar, and that makes it a natural candidate for the reference in Psalm 137:2, which says “On the ‘aravim [‘willows’ in Revised Standard Version and New Revised Standard Version, updated edition] there we hung up our lyres.” This is further strengthened by the fact that in Iraq this poplar is called gharab, which is cognate with ‘aravah.

The white poplar is a tall tree reaching perhaps 20 meters (66 feet). Its seeds are dispersed by the wind in bunches of long, silky hair. The Euphrates poplar is also tall. It has two types of leaves. When young, it produces a narrow leaf like a willow; when it matures, its leaves are broader. This has led to some confusion among scholars as to the identity of willows and poplars mentioned in the Bible.

Populus species (cottonwood, aspen) are known throughout Europe and North America. In Africa, apart from North Africa and South Africa where a number of kinds of poplars have been introduced from Europe, there do not seem to be any Populus species. Where Populus species are known, and if the inner bark is known to be white, they could be used in Genesis, but keep in mind that another tree of the same family (willow) is mentioned in Leviticus 23:40. Where Populus species are not known, we advocate transliterating from a major language in Genesis 30:37 (for example, popula, populari, hawur [Arabic], or abele [French]), since this is a historical setting rather than a rhetorical one.

Euphrates poplar, Wikimedia Commons
White poplar trunk, Wikimedia Commons

Source: Each According to its Kind: Plants and Trees in the Bible (UBS Helps for Translators)

plane

Zohary (Plants of the Bible. Cambridge University Press, 1982) confidently equates the ‘armon of Ezekiel 31:8 with Oriental Plane Platanus orientalis, mostly on the basis of the fact that Arabs call it dilba, which is derived from the Aramaic. The name ‘armon may come from the Hebrew word ‘erom meaning “naked,” referring to the way the bark peels off, leaving the seemingly naked trunk.

Plane trees may have been abundant in the past, if the common name “Wadi Dilb” is related to the Arabic dilba. In the present day, plane trees are fairly common in the upper Jordan Valley and its tributaries. It is widespread throughout the eastern Mediterranean region and in the hills of Iraq and Iran.

The plane tree is large and wide-spreading, with big branches and lobed, hairy leaves shaped like a hand. In Israel it can reach a height of 20 meters (66 feet) and the trunk 50 centimeters (2 feet) in diameter. Its flowers are small and green. The small seeds are contained in round, bristly fruits, which, when open, release the seeds with plumes that carry them great distances on the wind.

In Genesis 30:37 Jacob presumably chose to use branches of the plane tree because its bark can easily be peeled off in strips, exposing the white or yellow inner layer. In ancient times the plane tree was praised as a shade tree by the Greeks, Romans, and Persians. Ezekiel 31:8 associates planes, cedars, and beroshim (“cypresses” or “Grecian junipers”) with the “garden of God,” suggesting special beauty. In Sirach 24:14 wisdom is compared to the plane as a beautiful, big tree.

True plane trees are limited to Europe and North America, apart from the species that grows in the eastern Mediterranean region and Iran. (A wild maple tree in Britain is misleadingly called a “plane.”) Translators in Asia, Latin America, and Africa will have no local species available for the story of Jacob’s goat-breeding experiment in Genesis 30:37 and will have to consider a transliteration in keeping with the other trees mentioned there (poplar and almond). However, the passage in Ezekiel 31:8, where the plane is used in a metaphorical context, leaves room for local equivalents. Egypt, in this passage, is compared to a mighty cedar, against which other trees, such as the plane and the fir, do not match up. Rendering “plane” here will depend on what the translator does with the other trees.

Platanus orientalis, Wikimedia Commons

Source: Each According to its Kind: Plants and Trees in the Bible (UBS Helps for Translators)

oak

Three species of oak are found in Israel, the main ones being the Tabor oak and the Kermes (or common) oak. Both go by the name ’elon or ’allon in Hebrew. The similarity to the Hebrew word ’el (“god”) is significant, since these trees have long been associated with worship and with burial. Since the Tabor oak is the biggest, it is likely that ’elon and ’allon most often refer to that one. English versions have sometimes mistakenly translated the Hebrew word ’elah (“terebinth”) as “oak.”

According to Hepper (Baker Encyclopedia of Bible Plants, Baker Book House, 1992), forests of Kermes oak (Quercus calliprinos or Quercus coccifera) covered the hill country of Israel from Carmel to Samaria in biblical times. The Kermes oak forest is the most familiar and important type of vegetation in Israel.

The Tabor Oak Quercus macrolepsis (= Quercus aegilops = Quercus ithaburensis = Valonea oak in Israel) apparently replaced the original common oak during the Arab period (800–1400 A.D.), but has itself been nearly destroyed in more recent times by the efforts of charcoal makers, limestone burners, and the Turkish rail-way. Tabor oaks are deciduous and are found mostly in Carmel.

The large Tabor oak reaches a height of 25 meters (82 feet), branching at around 5.5 meters (18 feet). The Kermes oak is more like a large shrub, normally branching at ground level. The Tabor oak loses its leaves every winter; the Kermes oak is evergreen and prickly.

Oaks were used to mark grave sites (see Genesis 35:8), and it is possible that the references to “oak of Moreh” or “oaks of Mamre” may hint at burial sites of famous people. They were probably also important in divination, if the reference in Judges 9:37 (see Translation commentary on Judges 9:37) to a “Diviners’ Oak” can be taken as typical. References to people named Allon (1 Chronicles 4:37) or Elon (Genesis 46:14 et al.) may suggest that the oak was a symbol of strength or beauty, or both.

Oaks grow mainly in temperate areas (Europe, North America, North Asia, and Japan) and the Mediterranean area, including North Africa. Translators in tropical areas will not have a local variety as an option. In historical contexts, therefore, it will be necessary to transliterate from a major language. In poetic contexts such as the prophets, the oak typically represents a large and very strong tree, and a local species with those characteristics can be considered.

Tabor oak, photo by Ray Pritz
Kermes oak, Wikimedia Commons

Source: Each According to its Kind: Plants and Trees in the Bible (UBS Helps for Translators)

myrtle

The Myrtle Myrtus communis is found in the mountains of the Galilee region up to the present, as well as in North Africa and throughout the Middle East. In the apocalyptic passage Isaiah 41:19 it is listed with cedars, acacias, and olives, and we are told that in the new age these verdant trees will replace the thorny bushes of the wilderness. The Arabic as (آس) and the Akkadian asu (𒊍 / 𒀀𒋢𒌝) are cognates of the Hebrew word hadas. The leaves and flowers of the myrtle are used in weddings and in medicine. The wood is used for walking sticks and furniture. The bark and roots yield tannin, used up to the present day in Russia and Turkey to prepare leather.

The myrtle shrub is an evergreen with fragrant leaves and normally grows to a height of 2-3 meters (7-10 feet). It has leathery, dark green leaves, pretty white flowers, and bluish black berries, which have a sweet smell.

Nehemiah 8:15 tells us that branches of the myrtle and other trees were used to make shelters for the Festival of Shelters, a practice still followed by Jews today. The Isaiah references associate the myrtle with a time of renewal and goodness. Taken together we may conclude that when Zechariah situates his vision of horses and riders “among the myrtles,” he is thinking of a sacred place, a place of God’s presence, possibly even a “gateway to heaven,” although the use of the definite article may also point to a particular place that Zechariah and his readers knew about. Some commentators hold that the myrtles in Zechariah’s vision represent the people of Israel. Note that these myrtles are said to be growing in some kind of depression in the ground, whether a valley or ravine, which may itself be symbolic of a negative national experience, perhaps even the Babylonian Exile, as some have suggested.

Myrtles are part of the gigantic Myrtaceae family that includes at least three thousand species throughout the world, including the guava, the eucalyptus, and the clove. Close relatives of the myrtle, however, may be hard to find, so a transliteration from a major language may be the best option. In the poetical Isaiah passages the handling of hadas will depend on what the translator does with the other names of trees in the list, whether they use literary equivalents or transliterations. In Nehemiah, transliteration is advised, unless, of course, myrtle or a close relative of it is known. In Zechariah, since we do not know the significant features of the myrtle that the writer had in mind, it is difficult to make an appropriate descriptive equivalent. However, a transliteration or a generic phrase such as “shrubs” or “small, leafy trees” may be used.

Myrtle flowers, photo by Nigel Hepper
Myrtle branch, photo by Gloria Suess

Source: Each According to its Kind: Plants and Trees in the Bible (UBS Helps for Translators)

Phoenician juniper (coastal juniper)

The Phoenician Juniper Juniperus phoenicea is a lower-altitude cousin of the Grecian juniper. At present it is found scattered throughout the mountains of northern Sinai and southern Jordan, and Hepper notes that it occurs throughout the higher parts of Sinai and Arabia. In ancient times it may have been found throughout the Negev. Deuteronomy 2:36 refers to a town on the edge of the Wadi Arnon called Aroer, which is probably cognate with the Hebrew word ‘ar‘ar, indicating that these trees may have grown there. The identification of ‘ar‘ar/‘aro‘er as the Phoenician juniper is supported by the fact that Arabs in several countries call this juniper ‘ar‘ar. Since it is closely related to the cedars, some people also call it the “Phoenician cedar.” Note that Hebrew uses the same word ’erez to cover both the Phoenician juniper and the mighty cedar of Lebanon.

The Phoenician juniper is a short shrub or tree that may reach 5 meters (17 feet). It has tiny leathery leaflets and small berry-like cones.

We advocate translating ’erez as “juniper” in Leviticus and Numbers, if that species is known, or using a transliteration from a major language. The reference to ‘ar‘ar in Jeremiah 17:6 is poetic, and a cultural equivalent may be used; in a more literal version a transliteration may be used. Some scholars take the Hebrew word ‘aro‘er in the last line of Jeremiah 48:6 as meaning “juniper.”

Phoenician juniper, photo by Ray Pritz

Source: Each According to its Kind: Plants and Trees in the Bible (UBS Helps for Translators)

Grecian juniper

A tall evergreen, the Grecian Juniper Juniperus excelsa, also known as the Eastern Savin, grew in the mountains of Lebanon along with cedars, firs, and cypress (the Hebrew word berosh probably covered all three of these trees). The association of berosh with Mount Senir in Ezekiel 27:5 argues for the Grecian juniper there, since Mount Senir was known to have plenty of Grecian junipers. Lebanese people up to today refer to the juniper as brotha, a likely cognate with berosh. King Solomon undoubtedly hauled these trees to Jerusalem along with cedars and firs to use in constructing his palace and the Temple of Yahweh.

The Grecian juniper is a conical tree reaching a height of 20 meters (65 feet). Its “leaves” are round rather than flat, and the fruit is an inedible seed-bearing, fleshy cone.

There is no single Hebrew or Greek word that refers specifically to the Grecian juniper. In our discussion of cypress and fir, we have advocated translating berosh generically or as “fir” or “juniper” in 1-2 Kings and 2 Chronicles (where it is typically associated with Lebanon or cedar). If no generic word is available in the receptor language, a descriptive phrase such as “strong, beautiful tree/wood” can be used. In poetical passages, local poetic equivalents could be considered.

Grecian juniper, photo by Ray Pritz

Source: Each According to its Kind: Plants and Trees in the Bible (UBS Helps for Translators)

fir

The Cilician fir Abies cilicica grew abundantly in the forests of Lebanon along with cedars, evergreen cypresses, and Grecian junipers. The Hebrew word berosh probably included fir, cypress, and juniper. According to 1 Kings 5:8 and elsewhere, berosh was used in King Solomon’s building projects. The reference in Ezekiel 27:5 to the use of berosh for the timbers/planks of ships could well be talking about fir trees since they are very straight, but the association of berosh there with Mount Senir rather favors the Grecian juniper, which was abundant there.

The Cilician fir is a tall and almost perfectly straight evergreen tree, in the same family with pines, cedars, and cypresses. It can reach a height of 25 meters (82 feet). Its flat seeds are contained in cones that fall from the tree when mature. Firs are the major source for turpentine, used by painters to dilute paint and clean brushes.

The Abies genus is represented throughout the world in temperate climates at high altitudes (for example, in Kenya, Japan, and North America). Since there are no firs or anything quite like them in tropical Africa, translators can use a transliteration, for example, firi or pir. In Ezekiel 27:5 we recommend following Zohary by rendering berosh as “fir.” The majority of English translations are divided among “fir,” “cypress,” and “pine.” In 1-2 Kings and 2 Chronicles we recommend rendering berosh as “fir” or “juniper.” Elsewhere berosh may be considered a generic word referring to cypress, fir, pine, or all of them together. In those places a general word for this type of cone-bearing tree should be used.

Cilician fir in North Lebanon, Wikimedia Commons

Source: Each According to its Kind: Plants and Trees in the Bible (UBS Helps for Translators)

See also cypress.