There is little doubt that ’anafah refers to any type of heron found in the land of Israel, such as the Gray Heron Ardea cinerea, the Purple Heron Ardea purpurea, the Squacco Heron Ardeola ralloides, and the Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax. However, since the name is derived from a Hebrew root meaning nose, there are many scholars who feel that the word originally was used for any waterside bird with a prominent beak. This would include not only herons but also ibises, egrets, and perhaps bitterns and spoonbills.
Herons are fairly large birds with long necks, long beaks, and usually with long legs as well. They stand or walk slowly in shallow water in rivers, dams, ponds, or lakes looking into the water for small fish, which they catch by suddenly darting their heads into the water. They fly with slow wing-beats.
They are listed as an unclean bird.
Herons and egrets are widespread around the world, and finding a local equivalent should not be a problem.
Although the majority of English versions have roebuck, which is the male form of roe deer many biblical zoologists reject this rendering. They argue that roe deer while being fairly common in biblical times live singly or in pairs for part of the year but not in herds they are extremely shy and difficult to hunt as they live in thick undergrowth and seldom leave it. They are rarely even seen in areas where they live. Thus the argument goes it would have been almost impossible for large numbers of roe deer to have been brought to Solomon’s table on a daily basis as recorded in 1 Kings 4:23. However others argue that trapping roe deer would have been easy even though hunting was not.
The consensus among the zoologists supports the translation “bubal hartebeest” which was well known and could easily have been kept in semi-domesticated herds as were deer [Note that bubal hartebeest are now extinct]. In Egypt and to a lesser extent in Sinai the bubal hartebeest was depicted in murals and stone carvings and many mummified hartebeests have also been found in Egyptian sites. Both Canaanite and Israelite archeological sites have yielded hartebeest bones in fairly large quantities. They have even been found in close proximity to Canaanite altars suggesting that the Canaanites sacrificed them.
The Hebrew name yachmur is probably derived from a root ch-m-r, which means “red” and is the same root from which the Hebrew name for a donkey is derived. The bubal hartebeest is both red and remarkably like a horned donkey. It is also known as the red hartebeest. The word “hartebeest” is a word borrowed from Dutch and literally means “deer-cow”.
Interestingly, the Septuagint translates yachmur as bubalos “water buffalo”, which was an animal well known to the Israelites. Water buffalo were domesticated in Babylonia and Syria and were found in the marshes of northern Israel around Lake Huleh. However this translation has no support among modern scholars. The name bubal in bubal hartebeest is derived from this same Greek word.
Roe Deer capreolus capreolus are small deer, the adult males having short horns that have three prongs. Their fur is brownish in summer and gray in winter. They live singly or in pairs in the undergrowth of forests and thick woodland, never moving more than one or two meters (3-6 feet) from cover, even when feeding.
The Bubal or Red Hartebeest alcelaphus buselaphus is a large antelope about 1.5 meters (5 feet) high at the shoulder. Both males and females have very long faces with a large lump on the head from which sprout short thick horns. These curve upward and forward for half their length and then angle sharply backwards. Hartebeests are reddish brown in color.
They are plains animals and graze in herds often among gazelles zebras or other antelope. Although they look slightly ungainly with their sloping backs hartebeests are very good runners and can sustain high speed for as much as 10 kilometers (6 miles) easily outrunning any other animal over this distance.
These animals were once found all over North Africa and the plains of the land of Israel where they were known as “wild cows” by Bedouin. In some Jewish versions of the Bible yachmur is translated as “wild cow”. The bubal hartebeest has disappeared from those areas, but it is still found in the Kalahari semidesert in Botswana and in adjacent areas in Angola Namibia Zambia and Zimbabwe. Very similar hartebeests alcelaphus lelwel and alcelaphus cokei are also found in Chad, Sudan, Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania. In the latter two countries they are known by their Swahili name “kongoni”.
If the interpretation “roe deer” is chosen, then the local name for this deer can be used, where roe deer are known. In areas where roe deer are not known, names for other similar small deer can be used, as for instance: India, Myanmar (Burma), and Southeast Asia: Muntjak or Barking Deer muntiacus muntiacus; Latin America: Pampas Deer blastocerus bezoarticus of Brazil and Argentina. In areas of Africa where deer are not known, the name of a small solitary antelope, such as one of the duikers, can be used. Elsewhere an expression such as “small deer” (in contrast to “large deer” for the fallow deer), or a transliteration, can be used.
If the choice is for red or bubal hartebeest the following possibilities exist: Botswana, Zambia, Zimbabwe: the local word for Red Hartebeest alcelaphus buselaphus; East Africa: the Coke’s Hartebeest or Kongoni alcelaphus cokei; Chad and Sudan: Lelwel Hartebeest alcelaphus lelwel; Southern Africa: Cape Hartebeest alcelaphus caama, Tsessebe damaliscus lunatus, Bontebok damaliscus pygargus, or Blesbok damaliscus albifrons. Elsewhere a name like “wild cow” can be used.
The Hebrew word ‘akbar is a very general one including all of the small rodents. The word thus includes house mice, field mice, voles, dormice, jerboas, jirds, gerbils (sand or desert rats), black rats, brown rats, hamsters, and others. The Canaanites hunted and ate the larger rodents such as jerboas and gerbils (which are not rats at all, in spite of their nickname “sand rats”), and so do many of the desert tribes today in the Middle East.
It would not be possible to describe here all the various rodents covered by the Hebrew word ‘akbar. The descriptions will thus be limited to rats, voles, jerboas, and gerbils. House mice and field mice are too well known all over the world to warrant description.
Rats are larger than mice (25-30 centimeters [1 foot] long including tail) but otherwise look very much like them. Both the Black Rat Rattus rattus and the Brown Rat Rattus norvegicus vary in color from black to grayish brown with the brown rat having a slightly shorter snout. The black rat is host to a certain type of flea that is a carrier of the dreaded bubonic plague. Although zoologists in the 1960’s believed that Rattus rattus originated in Asia remains of this rat have been found in Israel dating from prehistoric times. The Brown Norwegian Rat only arrived in the land in the 1930’s.
Levant Vole Microtus socialis guentheri: Voles differ from small mice only in the shape of their cheek teeth so to most people they look just like mice. They are small grayish brown and have pale bellies. They feed on grass stalks and the stalks of grains such as wheat and barley. They are active day and night for about two or three hours at a time eating their own body weight and more each day. They also produce up to sixteen litters a year with up to twelve babies in a litter. Thus in a good season when there is plenty of food and cover in which to hide from predators their population explodes and this vast increase in numbers poses a very serious threat to crops. Of all mice these are the most destructive.
Lesser Jerboa Jaculus jaculus: The scientific name means “jumper”. Jerboas are slightly larger than most mice and have very long hind legs and very short front legs. They hop like kangaroos and are even known (erroneously) as “kangaroo rats”. They have a long tail with a tuft at the end and this is used for balance when they hop. They live in desert and semidesert areas and are the color of sand. They are active only at night and have large eyes and ears to compensate for this. They feed on seeds and can go without water for long periods.
Palestinian Gerbil Gerbillus andersoni allenbyi: Gerbils are very similar to jerboas but are smaller. When alarmed they can move very fast covering up to 3 meters (10 feet) with each leap. Although called “sand rats” or “desert rats”, they are actually not rats at all in the strict sense of the word.
In Leviticus 11:29 the ‘akbar is listed as an unclean animal. It is not clear and has often been debated by rabbinic scholars whether all “mice” are included in the ban, or only some species. Jerboas, gerbils, and hamsters are a common food among Middle Eastern desert tribes and are not classified as “mice” today.
The major exegetical choice to be made by the translator is whether the ban is on all types of small rodents or only on some. Commentators are divided on the issue. NEB, JB, NIV, and REB all take the prohibition to apply to specific species: rats (JB and NIV) or jerboas (NEB and REB). “Rats” is an understandable choice, since rats, especially the black rat, are known to be carriers of disease. TEV takes the view that all species are included in the ban and has “rats, mice”. KJV, RSV, and NAB have “mouse”, probably with a wide rather than a restricted meaning.
There is unanimous agreement today about the meaning of this word.
The Hoopoe Upupa epops is so named to represent its call, which has been described as hoop-hoop, poop-poop, or similar sounds. Its name is even similar in some African languages, such as Shonamupupu and Tswanapupupu. [The German name Wiedehopf (ˈviːdəhɔpf/) is onomatopoetic as well. (Source: Zetzsche)]
It is a bird about the size of a large dove, with a ginger colored head and body, and with wings and a tail that have black and white stripes. It has a long slender beak that curves slightly, and a long crest on its head, which it can erect into a fan shape.
The hoopoe has rather floppy wings and rises and falls as it flies. As soon as it lands, it erects its fan-shaped crest briefly. It spends a lot of time walking around on the ground looking for food. It nests in any suitable hole in a tree or in the ground and may raise two or three broods in a season. Unlike most other birds, it does not remove the nestlings’ droppings from the nest, and the nest smells badly as a result. Hoopoes eat insects and their larvae, termites, worms, small frogs, and beetles.
It is listed as an unclean bird.
The hoopoe is found all over Africa, Madagascar, the Middle East; across tropical Asia in savannah, but not rain forest areas; in Japan; and in southern Europe. In these areas a local name should not be difficult to find. Elsewhere, a name that approximates its call can usually be used, such as “hoopoo bird”, “pupu bird”, or something similar.
This word appears in the list of unclean birds as well as in the list of lizards, and it seems quite clear that an owl and a reptile had the same name. Giving quite different creatures the same name is a common phenomenon in many languages. For instance, in English the word “cob” is used for a male swan as well as for a type of riding horse, and “sable” is the name of a small carnivorous animal as well the name of a large antelope; in Dutch “duiker” is the name of both the cormorant (a bird) and a type of antelope.
The Hebrew name tinshemeth is derived from a verb that means “to pant or to breathe loudly”. This makes it very likely that the reference is to the chameleon. When annoyed, hurt, or in danger, the chameleon turns black, inflates its large lungs, making itself look bigger, and then opens its mouth, puffing and hissing like a snake. See also tinshemeth / barn owl.
The Chameleon Chamaeleo chamaeleon is a very interesting lizard. It lives in vegetation. It is basically green but can change color to match its environment. It can become brown, pale yellow, or gray, and can vary the shade at different points of its body so as to become mottled or to have patches of dark and light color. This gives it good camouflage in vegetation. It is slow moving, often moving only one limb at a time in a series of wavering movements, mimicking the movement of twigs in the breeze. It has opposed claws on each foot, enabling it to hold very tight and to walk along thin twigs.
It has small scales and many small wart-like lumps on its tough skin. It has a row of pointed scales down its spine. Some species of chameleon have horn-like protrusions on their heads and faces.
The chameleon’s eyes are unique. It has an eyelid that completely covers the eye except for a small hole for the chameleon to see through. The chameleon can move this aperture around with each eyelid working independently of the other, and this enables it to look in two directions at once. It feeds on insects by catching them with its long, sticky, elastic tongue, which it flicks at the prey. The chameleon is also able to use its tail to wrap around twigs and other things to support itself when the wind blows or when climbing at a steep angle. It can hang by this tail from a twig or small branch and often uses this technique to move from a higher branch to a lower one.
It is listed as an unclean animal.
Chameleons are found all over Africa except in desert areas, and in some parts of tropical Asia. Where chameleons are not known, it may be necessary to borrow a word from the dominant language of the area, or from Hebrew, as Jerusalem Bible has done. A phrase such as “slow lizard” or “puffer lizard” is another option.
Most modern scholars are of the opinion that the Hebrew word te’o refers to the oryx. Oryx bones have been found in proximity to Israelite and Canaanite domestic and sacrificial sites that date over a very wide time span proof that the animal was fairly common and was considered to be acceptable to eat. Furthermore it is known that until the mid-nineteenth century large numbers of oryx roamed the Negev in Palestine.
The Arabian or Desert Oryx Oryx leucoryx is a medium-sized antelope, about the size of a donkey. It is closely related to the African oryxes, such as the Gemsbok Oryx gazella of the Kalahari and Namib semideserts, the East African Oryx Oryx beisa, and the Scimitar-horned Oryx Oryx algazel of the Sudan and Egypt. In many ways the oryx is also similar to, but smaller than, the Sable Antelope Hippotragus niger and the Roan Antelope Hippotragus equinus, both of which are found in South Africa, Zimbabwe, Zambia, and Angola.
The Arabian oryx, which was once plentiful in the land of Israel is now almost extinct and the only remaining specimens have been bred in semicaptivity and in captivity from one small breeding herd. This inbreeding and captivity have resulted in marked genetic deterioration so that today’s specimens are smaller and weaker than their ancestors and many have deformed horns. So although the specimens in photographs give us a rough idea of what the original Arabian oryx was like, these modern defects should be borne in mind.
Both males and females of the Arabian oryx have long slender horns that are usually over a meter (3 feet) long. The horns are almost straight and slope back from the animal’s head at about thirty degrees from the perpendicular. The adults are a light fawn color with dark brown markings on the face and on the lower part of both front and back legs. The belly is white.
In the wild oryxes are well able to defend themselves with their long horns and the African species are often able to drive off lions and other predators sometimes even killing their attackers. When wounded by hunters they are extremely dangerous. They are also very strong runners. They live in semi-desert conditions and are very hardy.
The oryx was known for its strength (perhaps exaggerated since strength was associated with long horns) and bravery. Oryx horns are the longest horns known in the Middle East and North Africa and since horns were a symbol of power and strength this probably added to the association of the oryx with power. According to some Jewish scholars oryx horns were later used to make special shofar trumpets blown only at Passover. The oryx is listed among the clean animals.
In Africa and other areas where oryxes or sable and roan antelopes are known, the word for one of these animals could be used throughout. Elsewhere, a term, such as “long-horned antelopes”, could be used for te’o, or a transliteration of the Hebrew word might be considered, with a description given in a footnote or in the glossary.
There is no consensus among scholars about the bird this word refers to. The word occurs five times, and from the contexts it can be stated with some certainty that
a. it is an unclean bird (that is, it is not a seed eater)
b. it is associated with the Judean Desert
c. it is associated with ruin
An additional feature, which has largely been overlooked, is that in four of the five verses the discourse structure indicates that it was paired in the biblical writers’ minds with the raven. This would indicate that this bird is probably a carrion eater or scavenger and possibly black.
These contexts would rule out the interpretation “pelican”. Psalm 102:6 could possibly be construed as referring to the great distress a pelican would suffer in the desert. However, this argument is weakened by the fact that it would be almost nonsensical in Isaiah 34:11 to indicate that Edom will become a place of hot springs and desolation by saying that it will be “a dwelling place of pelicans”. The White Pelican Pelecanus onocrotalus, which is the pelican seen most often in the land of Israel, lives in large rivers, lakes, lagoons, and oceans. They are passing migrants in Israel, staying only a few weeks in autumn. They stop briefly in the Huleh and Eilat areas, as they move from the Black Sea, the Danube Delta, and the Caspian Sea to Africa. No place in the whole of the Middle East could be called a “dwelling place of pelicans”. To do so would be to indicate that the place has become a wetland or full of suitable lakes well-stocked with fish.
Some sort of owl seems more likely, and most modern English translations follow Driver’s suggestion in this regard. New English Bible and Revised English Bible have “horned owl”. This is not a species of owl but a much broader classification referring to a family of owls that have prominent ear tufts. New International Version and New American Bible have an even more general term, “desert owl”. There is no such family or species of owl, and the phrase simply means an owl found in the desert.
However, another interesting suggestion has been the jackdaw. Besides fitting all of the contexts, it also makes a fitting pairing with the raven in Leviticus 11:18; Deuteronomy 14:17; Isaiah 34:11; and Zephaniah 2:14. In the latter two passages the birds mentioned would be the jackdaw, two types of owl, and the raven, making a typical Hebrew correspondence between opening and closing items, and between the two middle items. In modern Hebrew the jackdaw is called qa’ak, which might be a slightly modified form of the biblical qa’ath. All scholars are agreed that the name relates to the sound the bird makes, and this would certainly be a good representation of the sound made by the jackdaw.
Since the pelican is unlikely as the proper translation of this name, it will not be described here. Descriptions of owls indigenous to Israel can be found under owl.
The Jackdaw Corvus monedula is a member of the same family as ravens and crows but is smaller. It is black all over.
This bird is a symbol of uncleanness, desolation, and possibly death.
Jackdaws are found in the Middle East, South Asia, and Europe. A word for a small type of crow would be the best choice in most other places. Even a phrase such as “small crows and big crows” could be used for jackdaws and ravens.
If an owl is accepted as the meaning of qa’ath then a general word for owl is a better choice than any one subspecies of owl. However, care should be taken not to introduce an association with witchcraft, since this was not the case in the original Hebrew.
There is general agreement among modern scholars that the word pethen refers to the cobra, since the word is closely associated with snake charming, which requires a snake that can raise the front part of its body vertically, something a viper cannot do. The words tsif‘oni and tsefa‘ are also probably references to a type of cobra. This can be well supported by the contexts in which the word occurs, in which reference is made to the fact that it lives in holes and lays eggs. These contexts would rule out any of the vipers.
There is some evidence that pethen was the earlier name for the cobra, and tsefa‘ and tsif‘oni were later names. Something similar is the case with English, where “cobra” has been in use only for the last one hundred years, and previously “asp” was used.
“Adder” is used as the name for some of the subspecies of viper and is probably not the best word to translate these three Hebrew words.
Cobras are characterized by their ability to spread the ribs in their neck area, so as to form a broad flat profile called the hood. This makes the snake look much thicker than it really is. Cobras also have short fixed fangs in the front of their mouths. The cobra that is found in the land of Israel is the Desert Cobra or Walter Innes’s snake (Walterinnesia aegyptia), while the cobra found in Egypt is the Egyptian Cobra Naja haje. The cobra is a large snake, reaching 2 meters (6 feet) in length, and about 50 millimeters (2 inches) in diameter. It is dark brown with a yellowish underside. In some areas where it is found it has broad yellowish bands, which give it its alternative English name, banded cobra. When it rears up and spreads its hood, the hood has a yellowish background, but displays a broad dark brown horizontal stripe.
Its bite is very poisonous, and it takes quick effect, acting on the nervous system. The cobra feeds on mice, gerbils, birds, bird’s eggs, lizards, frogs, and other snakes. It hunts by following scent trails, which it senses with its tongue. When within range of its prey, it raises its head slowly vertically, and suddenly strikes at the unsuspecting victim. It lives mainly in grassland and where the vegetation is fairly thick. It takes cover in rat holes, holes in eroded banks, hollow trees, under logs, and among exposed roots. It may lay its eggs in any of these sheltered places. In cold weather it coils itself up to preserve its body heat.
The cobra, besides being a symbol of lurking danger, was also closely associated with Egypt. In some poetic passages, therefore, it is a metaphor for the enemies of Israel, Egypt in particular.
The Egyptian cobra is found all over Africa, and a local word should not be difficult to find. In South and Southeast Asia a word for the King Cobra Naja hannah or one of the other cobras would be a good equivalent. In areas where these cobras are symbols of good luck and the presence of a deity, the Hebrew symbolism might need to be explained in a footnote. In other parts of the world, if cobras are unknown, the name of a local long poisonous snake of a type different from vipers and adders is a possible choice.
In passages where snakes are referred to as “stinging”, it is not necessary to use a verb meaning literally “to sting”. This is just the Hebrew way of referring to the bite of a snake. In many languages the verb used for a snake’s bite is different from the one used to refer to the bite of something else, such as a dog.
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