After …: The book of 1Maccabees begins abruptly, and the reader is immediately thrown into an account of ancient historical events. Something is needed to lead into this information. Good News Bible‘s device for beginning this history is good: “This history begins when….” This serves the function of introducing the information in verses 1-10 smoothly, and of identifying the book as a history (relating what are supposed to be factual events). Translators may follow Good News Bible, but any method a culture uses to identify and introduce historical material should be followed.

Alexander son of Philip, the Macedonian: Alexander established the Greek Empire and ruled over it 336–323 b.c. His empire extended over all the biblical world, and as far east as India. His father was King Philip, the ruler of Macedon. Macedon was an ancient country on the Balkan peninsula of Europe, roughly comprising what is now the northwestern portion of Greece. Good News Bible inserts “the Great” for the benefit of those readers who might recognize Alexander as a major figure in the history of the Western world. However, the important thing here is to let the readers know that he was a king; for example, this whole phrase may be rendered “Alexander the great king [or, the high chief] who was the son of King Philip who ruled over the territory [or, land] of Macedon.”

Who came from the land of Kittim: It is not clear whom this relative clause describes. It is probably Alexander, but it could be Philip. The verb came implies that he took his army with him, so it may be rendered “marched with his army [or, soldiers]” or “led his army” (Contemporary English Version [Contemporary English Version]). Kittim was a word used in Hebrew writings to refer originally to Cyprus (an island in the eastern Mediterranean), but later came to be used of almost any Gentile territory in the Mediterranean area, even Rome itself. Here it seems that the writer intends Kittim to refer to the Greek world in general. From its use in Hebrew writings, we may understand that it refers to any Western power, especially one that was trying to conquer new territory. From the standpoint of a Jewish writer in the second century b.c., it would not be incorrect to translate Kittim as “Europe.” An alternative model for this whole clause is “who marched with his army [or, soldiers] out of Europe.” In languages where the direction of actions is decided by where the author is residing, this unknown writer was probably somewhere in Palestine—possibly Jerusalem. Alexander marched from Greece through Asia Minor to Persia, located northeast of Palestine.

Had defeated Darius, king of the Persians and the Medes: As indicated by the Revised Standard Version footnote, the Greek text repeats the verb defeated, which begins literally with “And it happened after Alexander … had defeated … and he defeated….” However, this repetition is not likely to be a textual problem; it probably is simply a literal translation of a Hebrew idiom that repeats the same verb for emphasis. It may be rendered “completely defeated” (Tedesche). Darius was Darius~III, who ruled over the Persian Empire 335–331 b.c. Alexander defeated him in 331 b.c. The Persians and the Medes are the people who lived in the ancient countries of Persia and Media, which roughly cover the area of modern Iran. An alternative model for this whole clause is “had completely [or, soundly] defeated King Darius, who ruled over the Persians and Medes.”

He succeeded him as king: It is not clear who the referent is for the pronoun him. It is probably Darius, but it could be Philip. Alexander took the territory controlled by Darius.

He had previously become king of Greece is literally “and ruled in his place first [or, earlier] over Greece.” The meaning of this clause is uncertain. If the Greek word for “first” is understood to mean “earlier,” then this clause is saying that Alexander was king of the country of Greece before he defeated Darius (so Revised Standard Version). However, if that word is interpreted as “[the very] first,” the clause can mean that as a result of conquering Darius and the Persians, Alexander became “the first to rule over the Hellenistic empire” (Goldstein). Either would be a true statement. Part of the problem is that the Hebrew underlying the Greek text here does not make a distinction between “earlier” (comparative degree) and “first” (superlative degree), so the Hebrew adjective could be translated either way. In 1Macc 6.2 there is another reference to Alexander, this time with the Greek word for “first” clearly stated, and it appears that the author is giving the same information in 1.1 and 6.2. It is clear from 6.2 that the author means to refer to Alexander as the first king of the Greek or Hellenistic Empire. (In Greek the land of Greece is known as “Hellas” and its people as “Hellenes.” Historians use the word “Hellenic” to refer to the culture of classical Greece in the sixth and fifth centuries b.c., but use “Hellenistic” to refer to Greek-influenced civilizations in the Mediterranean from the time of Alexander the Great to the beginning of the Roman Empire.) That is how we will interpret it here. There is also important manuscript evidence for a very slightly different text which makes this even clearer.

A possible alternative model for verse 1 is:

• This history begins with King [or, High/Supreme Chief] Alexander the son of King Philip of Macedon [or, King Philip who ruled over the territory of Macedon]. Alexander marched with his soldiers out of Europe and completely defeated King Darius who ruled over the Persians and Medes. He took over [or, captured] their lands and became the first king to rule over the Greek Empire [or, over all the lands conquered by the Greeks].

Quoted with permission from Bullard, Roger A. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on 1-2 Maccabees. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2011. For this and other handbooks for translators see here.