fir

The Cilician fir Abies cilicica grew abundantly in the forests of Lebanon along with cedars, evergreen cypresses, and Grecian junipers. The Hebrew word berosh probably included fir, cypress, and juniper. According to 1 Kings 5:8 and elsewhere, berosh was used in King Solomon’s building projects. The reference in Ezekiel 27:5 to the use of berosh for the timbers/planks of ships could well be talking about fir trees since they are very straight, but the association of berosh there with Mount Senir rather favors the Grecian juniper, which was abundant there.

The Cilician fir is a tall and almost perfectly straight evergreen tree, in the same family with pines, cedars, and cypresses. It can reach a height of 25 meters (82 feet). Its flat seeds are contained in cones that fall from the tree when mature. Firs are the major source for turpentine, used by painters to dilute paint and clean brushes.

The Abies genus is represented throughout the world in temperate climates at high altitudes (for example, in Kenya, Japan, and North America). Since there are no firs or anything quite like them in tropical Africa, translators can use a transliteration, for example, firi or pir. In Ezekiel 27:5 we recommend following Zohary by rendering berosh as “fir.” The majority of English translations are divided among “fir,” “cypress,” and “pine.” In 1-2 Kings and 2 Chronicles we recommend rendering berosh as “fir” or “juniper.” Elsewhere berosh may be considered a generic word referring to cypress, fir, pine, or all of them together. In those places a general word for this type of cone-bearing tree should be used.

Cilician fir in North Lebanon, Wikimedia Commons

Source: Each According to its Kind: Plants and Trees in the Bible (UBS Helps for Translators)

See also cypress.

Grecian juniper

A tall evergreen, the Grecian Juniper Juniperus excelsa, also known as the Eastern Savin, grew in the mountains of Lebanon along with cedars, firs, and cypress (the Hebrew word berosh probably covered all three of these trees). The association of berosh with Mount Senir in Ezekiel 27:5 argues for the Grecian juniper there, since Mount Senir was known to have plenty of Grecian junipers. Lebanese people up to today refer to the juniper as brotha, a likely cognate with berosh. King Solomon undoubtedly hauled these trees to Jerusalem along with cedars and firs to use in constructing his palace and the Temple of Yahweh.

The Grecian juniper is a conical tree reaching a height of 20 meters (65 feet). Its “leaves” are round rather than flat, and the fruit is an inedible seed-bearing, fleshy cone.

There is no single Hebrew or Greek word that refers specifically to the Grecian juniper. In our discussion of cypress and fir, we have advocated translating berosh generically or as “fir” or “juniper” in 1-2 Kings and 2 Chronicles (where it is typically associated with Lebanon or cedar). If no generic word is available in the receptor language, a descriptive phrase such as “strong, beautiful tree/wood” can be used. In poetical passages, local poetic equivalents could be considered.

Grecian juniper, photo by Ray Pritz

Source: Each According to its Kind: Plants and Trees in the Bible (UBS Helps for Translators)

oak

Three species of oak are found in Israel, the main ones being the Tabor oak and the Kermes (or common) oak. Both go by the name ’elon or ’allon in Hebrew. The similarity to the Hebrew word ’el (“god”) is significant, since these trees have long been associated with worship and with burial. Since the Tabor oak is the biggest, it is likely that ’elon and ’allon most often refer to that one. English versions have sometimes mistakenly translated the Hebrew word ’elah (“terebinth”) as “oak.”

According to Hepper (Baker Encyclopedia of Bible Plants, Baker Book House, 1992), forests of Kermes oak (Quercus calliprinos or Quercus coccifera) covered the hill country of Israel from Carmel to Samaria in biblical times. The Kermes oak forest is the most familiar and important type of vegetation in Israel.

The Tabor Oak Quercus macrolepsis (= Quercus aegilops = Quercus ithaburensis = Valonea oak in Israel) apparently replaced the original common oak during the Arab period (800–1400 A.D.), but has itself been nearly destroyed in more recent times by the efforts of charcoal makers, limestone burners, and the Turkish rail-way. Tabor oaks are deciduous and are found mostly in Carmel.

The large Tabor oak reaches a height of 25 meters (82 feet), branching at around 5.5 meters (18 feet). The Kermes oak is more like a large shrub, normally branching at ground level. The Tabor oak loses its leaves every winter; the Kermes oak is evergreen and prickly.

Oaks were used to mark grave sites (see Genesis 35:8), and it is possible that the references to “oak of Moreh” or “oaks of Mamre” may hint at burial sites of famous people. They were probably also important in divination, if the reference in Judges 9:37 (see Translation commentary on Judges 9:37) to a “Diviners’ Oak” can be taken as typical. References to people named Allon (1 Chronicles 4:37) or Elon (Genesis 46:14 et al.) may suggest that the oak was a symbol of strength or beauty, or both.

Oaks grow mainly in temperate areas (Europe, North America, North Asia, and Japan) and the Mediterranean area, including North Africa. Translators in tropical areas will not have a local variety as an option. In historical contexts, therefore, it will be necessary to transliterate from a major language. In poetic contexts such as the prophets, the oak typically represents a large and very strong tree, and a local species with those characteristics can be considered.

Tabor oak, photo by Ray Pritz
Kermes oak, Wikimedia Commons

Source: Each According to its Kind: Plants and Trees in the Bible (UBS Helps for Translators)

complete verse (Zechariah 11:2)

Following are a number of back-translations as well as a sample translation for translators of Zechariah 11:2:

  • Kupsabiny: “Let the cypresses scream
    because those big cedars have fallen.
    Let the oaks of Bashan wail
    because the forest has been felled.” (Source: Kupsabiny Back Translation)
  • Newari: “Weep, you pine trees! For the cedars have fallen.
    Tall and beautiful trees have fallen.
    Howl, oh you oaks of Bashan,
    the trees of the dense forest have been felled.” (Source: Newari Back Translation)
  • Hiligaynon: “And now that the beautiful and thickest trees of cedar were-ruined, the cypress trees will- also -be-ruined and the oak/terebinto trees of Bashan.” (Source: Hiligaynon Back Translation)

cedar

Long ago the majestic cedars of Lebanon (Cedrus libani) completely covered the upper slopes of the Lebanon Mountains on the western and northern sides. Now only a few pockets of these mighty cedars remain. At that time they were mixed, as they are today, with other trees such as Cilician fir, Grecian juniper, cypress, and Calabrian pine.

We know from 1 Kings that Solomon used cedar wood in his palace and in the Temple. Cedar was used for beams, boards, pillars, and ceilings. Historians tell us that the Assyrians also hauled cedars to their land for use in buildings. Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon also imported cedars from Lebanon. In some versions of Isaiah we read that people made idols of cedar and oak (44:14-20). Finally, when the Temple was rebuilt by the returning exiles (Ezra 3:7), they again cut down cedar trees to grace the house of God.

In 2 Samuel, 1-2 Kings, 1-2 Chronicles and Ezra, when Lebanon is specifically mentioned, there can be no doubt that ’erez is Cedrus libani, the “cedar of Lebanon,” although it is possible that sometimes the word was used loosely to include various evergreen trees.

In the description of the purification rituals (Leviticus 14:4 at al.), the word ’erez probably refers to the Phoenician juniper tree, since that was the only cedar-like tree in the Sinai Desert.

Description  Cedar trees can reach 30 meters (100 feet) high with a trunk more than 2 meters (7 feet) in diameter. The leaves of true cedars are not flat like those of most trees, but consist of tufts of dark green, shiny spines. (The cedars in North America have a flatter type of spine than the biblical cedar.) The wood is fragrant and resistant to insects. Cedars bear cones and can live to be two or three thousand years old.

The cedar of Lebanon is famous for its large size (see Isaiah 2:13 et al.), and for the fragrance of its wood. Psalm 92:12 links the cedar to righteousness, that is, presumably, to its straightness and height above other trees. The cedar is the national emblem of Lebanon.

Cedrus species are found in the mountains of North Africa, in the Himalayas, in India, and in North America. Translators in these places, should, of course, use the local name in nonfigurative references. In sub Saharan Africa, translators can transliterate from Hebrew (’erez), Greek (kedar), English (sedar), or another major language, or they can take a generic solution such as “large, beautiful tree.” In poetic passages (wisdom literature and prophecy), some translators may wish to use a cultural equivalent with these traits. In Africa, according to Burkhill (The Useful Plants of West Tropical Africa, volume 4. Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens, 1985), the Pink Mahogany Guarea cedrata is also called the pink African cedar because of the cedar-like scent of its timber. Likewise, some people in India and Australia use “cedar” to refer to the toon because of its reddish wood. I do not recommend such substitutes in historical passages, since the ’erez is not related to these trees. In some figurative passages, however, the substitution could be effective, since all are large trees with reddish wood. However, each passage has to be evaluated to determine the intended effect of the image.

Cedar of Lebanon, Wikimedia Commons

Source: Each According to its Kind: Plants and Trees in the Bible (UBS Helps for Translators)

Translation commentary on Zechariah 11:1 - 11:2

These two verses are taken together because they consist of three statements parallel in structure, each with an imperative verb followed by a vocative form, that is a noun naming who or what the imperative is addressed to. As Driver recognized, this marks a significant break from the previous paragraph. Since there is no general agreement about the interpretation of the symbolic places and trees, translators have a duty to preserve the imagery rather than to try to explain it. This means that in this section a translation cannot avoid being rather literal.

Open your doors, O Lebanon: In many languages the vocative form normally comes at the beginning of the clause or sentence, and translators may need to make that adjustment in this and the following sentences. Lebanon refers to a geographical region rather than a clearly defined political unit. In some languages it may be necessary to say “land [or, region/district] of Lebanon.” If it would sound strange to address a territory in this way, then it may be helpful to add a footnote to explain that Lebanon stands for a political person or power that cannot be identified with certainty. Or else translators may say “People of Lebanon.” Open your doors is a metaphor conveying the sense that the people of Lebanon should not resist what is going to happen. If the metaphor open your doors will sound strange in a translator’s language, it may be necessary to say something like “People of Lebanon, don’t resist [or, stand in the way of] what will happen.” However, it is best to keep the metaphor if at all possible.

That the fire may devour your cedars: Scholars do not agree on whether this speaks literally of burning the magnificent cedar trees of Lebanon or figuratively of a successful attack by an enemy army. If an attack is intended, we cannot identify any historical event that fits with it. In view of the uncertainty, translators should keep the figure of speech if they can. In many languages it will be possible to speak of a fire “devouring” a forest, but if such an expression is unacceptable, then it may be necessary to develop the metaphor of the fire, and say “burn” (as Good News Translation). It may even be necessary to use a nonfigurative term like “destroy.” For example, Contemporary English Version has “Let the fire come in to destroy your cedar trees.” In areas where cedars are not known, there may be a related species of conifer that could be used instead, especially if it is commercially valuable and does not require an environment impossible in the Lebanon region. The cedar tree is mentioned over 70 times in the Old Testament, and it is desirable to be consistent in these different places. In some languages it may be necessary to use an explanatory phrase for cedars, such as “large [or, valuable] trees.” Or else it may be necessary to borrow a term from a major language of the area and to add the term for “tree”; for example, “sida tree” or “kedari tree.”

Wail, O cypress, for the cedar has fallen: Wail is a rather old-fashioned term in English meaning to cry out to express sorrow. A cypress is another kind of tree common in the Lebanon area. It is neither as large nor as valuable as the cedar. There is some doubt about which type of tree is meant by the Hebrew word, and modern versions vary in their choice of an English word. Most have cypress, but Moffatt, Knox, New International Version, and New English Bible/ Revised English Bible have “pine” and New Jerusalem Bible “juniper.” It is some kind of evergreen tree whose wood is useful. If cypress trees are unknown, translators may substitute a related species of pine tree (which they should use consistently), or may borrow the word “cypress” and describe it in a footnote or the glossary. Some American editions of Contemporary English Version have “cyprus” instead of “cypress” at this point, but this is merely a curious misprint, not the name of a different tree!

The verb has fallen is taken by some scholars to refer to cutting down rather than burning the cedars; but in a highly figurative passage it seems possible that the meaning is general, and the statement refers to the destruction of the cedars without particular reference to the means. However, to contrast with ruined in the next line, it will probably be better to use fallen in this present line, as do Revised Standard Version, Good News Translation, New International Version, and Contemporary English Version.

For the glorious trees are ruined: The Hebrew does not contain any word equivalent to trees, so that some versions render the glorious trees as “the mighty ones” (Jerusalem Bible) or “the majestic ones” (New Jerusalem Bible). This could be understood as a statement parallel with the previous one and referring in this context to the cedar trees. Other versions such as New American Bible and New Jewish Publication Society’s Tanakh simply have “the mighty,” which is more likely to be understood as referring to people, presumably people leading the defense against the attackers. It seems simplest to assume that the reference continues to be to the trees, so translators are advised to follow Revised Standard Version/New Revised Standard Version, Good News Translation, and others in this respect.

Wail, oaks of Bashan: Oaks are also trees producing a strong and valuable wood. They are mentioned over 20 times in the Bible. If these trees are not known, translators may either use a general descriptive phrase, such as “large [or, tall/shady] trees,” or they may borrow a term from a major language of the area. Bashan is an area to the east of the Jordan River and is also mentioned as a place notable for oak trees in Isa 2.13; Ezek 27.6.

For the thick forest has been felled: The word translated thick or “dense” (Good News Translation) is taken by a number of scholars to be related to a Hebrew root meaning “fortified” or “inaccessible,” and thus several versions render it as “impenetrable” (New American Bible, New English Bible/ Revised English Bible, Jerusalem Bible/New Jerusalem Bible). The logic of the sentence seems to be that if even the thickest forests were cut down, then the oaks of Bashan, where the country was more open, should Wail because they could be certain that they would also suffer the same fate. The word for felled is literally “come down,” but cutting rather than the burning of verse 1 seems to be in view. The more general term “laid low” is preferred by New English Bible/ Revised English Bible. In languages that do not use the passive, translators may say for the last two lines, for example, “Cry [or, Weep], you oak trees in Bashan, because people [or, enemies] have cut the dense forest down.”

Quoted with permission from Clark, David J. & Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on Zechariah. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2002. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .