sheep

“Sheep are known throughout most of the world, even though, as in Central Africa, they are a far cry from the fleecy wool-producing animals of colder climates. Where such animals are known, even by seemingly strange names, e.g. ‘cotton deer’ (Yucateco) or ‘woolly goat’ (Inupiaq), such names should be used. In some instances, one may wish to borrow a name and use a classifier, e.g. ‘an animal called sheep’. In still other instances translators have used ‘animal which produces wool’, for though people are not acquainted with the animals they are familiar with wool.” (Source: Bratcher / Nida)

In Dëne Súline, it is usually translated as “an evil little caribou.” To avoid the negative connotation, a loan word from the neighboring South Slavey was used. (Source: NCEM, p. 70)

Note that the often-alleged Inuktitut translation of “sheep” with “seal” is an urban myth (source Nida 1947, p. 136).

See also lamb and sheep / lamb.

donkey

The Hebrew and Greek that is translated as “donkey” in English was translated in the 1900 Kalaallisut (Greenlandic) translation (a newer version was published in 2000) as siutitôĸ or “‘something with big ears.” “[This] is based on the word siut ‘ear’ combined with the same suffix –tôĸ (-tooq).” (Source: Lily Kahn & Riitta-Liisa Valijärvi in The Bible Translator 2019, p. 125ff.)

 

These Hebrew and Greek words (with the exception of pōlos and hupozugion — see discussion below) all definitely refer to the Domestic Donkey equus asinus. However the different words do have slight semantic differences among them.

Chamor and onos are the generic words for donkey while ’athon (feminine gender) refers specifically to a saddle donkey or a donkey used for riding. A saddle donkey is usually a large strong female donkey the males are too difficult to control when they are near a female in heat. The Hebrew word is derived from a root that means “strong”.

‘Ayir refers to the young male or jack donkey (probably with an emphasis on its liveliness and the difficulty in controlling it since the Hebrew root means something like “frisky”).

Onarion means a young donkey of either sex. Some languages will have a special word for a young donkey. This will be appropriate for translating onarion.

The word hupozugion often translated “donkey,” actually indicates any beast of burden. Walter Bauer, the famous German New Testament scholar, has argued very convincingly that the animal referred to in Matthew 21:5 in the expression epi pōlon huion hupozugiou is the foal of a horse not a donkey (1953:220-229). In some languages it will be possible to express this in a way that does not designate a specific species of animal`, as in “beast of burden.”

Pōlos usually refers to a foal, that is a young horse, unless a word for donkey follows.

Donkeys are domestic animals belonging to the same family as the horse, but they are smaller and have longer ears. The donkey bred and used in the Middle East is the domesticated Nubian or Somali Wild Ass Equus Asinus africanus. In its original wild state this was a gray ass with pale, whitish belly and dark rings on the lower part of the legs. It was domesticated in Egypt as early as 2500 B.C. In its domesticated version, as a result of interbreeding with donkeys from Europe and Persia, the donkey came to be a variety of colors from dark brown, through light brown to the original gray and occasionally white. The Hebrew chamor comes from a root meaning “reddish brown.”

Donkeys are good pack animals being able to carry as much as the larger mule without the latter’s unpredictable moods. They also have great stamina and are easy to feed since they eat almost any available vegetation. Larger individual animals (usually females) are also often used for riding.

Donkeys were highly prized in biblical times especially females since they were suitable for packing and riding and had the potential for producing offspring. Donkeys were seen as man’s best friend in the animal kingdom. They were the common man’s means of transport and many ordinary families owned a donkey. They were used for plowing and for turning large millstones as well as a means of transport.

Today domestic donkeys are found all over savannah Africa the Middle East South and Central Asia Europe Latin America and Australia. They do not seem to be reared in rain forest or monsoon areas but they are nevertheless often known in these areas.

A donkey was considered to be a basic domestic requirement and thus the number of donkeys available was a means of measuring the relative prosperity of a society at any given time. While only powerful political or military people rode horses (which were usually owned by the state) the common people rode donkeys. This is the significance of the passage in Zechariah 9:9: the victorious king would return to the city riding a donkey thus identifying himself as a common Israelite rather than a victorious warlord.

In the majority of languages there is a local or a borrowed word for donkey. This is the obvious choice. In areas of Southeast Asia, Papua New Guinea, West Africa, and other places, where donkeys are rare or unknown, the word from the dominant major language or trade language (for example, English, Spanish, French, Chinese, or Arabic) is often transliterated.

In most contexts ’athon should be translated by the equivalent of “female” donkey, but in some contexts riding donkey is better.

‘Ayir should be translated according to the specific context. In Genesis 32:15 the translation should definitely be the equivalent of “male donkey”, and probably also in Judges 10:4 and Judges 12:14. The significance of these latter passages is that female donkeys were the more normal choice of mount.

In Job 11:12 the emphasis is probably on the friskiness of the donkey, and the translation should be the equivalent of “He ties his young donkey to a grapevine, his frisky young ass to the best of the vines” (indicating a certain amount of irresponsibility, and perhaps extravagance).

In Job 11:12 and Zechariah 9:9 the obvious emphasis is on the youth of the donkey, so the equivalent of “colt”, “foal”, “young donkey”, and so on should be used.

Equus asinus (donkey), Wikimedia Commons

Source: All Creatures Great and Small: Living things in the Bible (UBS Helps for Translators)

See also young donkey and wild ass.

Translation commentary on Judges 6:4

This verse begins with the Hebrew waw conjunction, which introduces additional details about the Midianites’ activities in the region. but Revised Standard Version and most other versions omit it. Translators can decide if a transition word is needed here.

They would encamp against them uses a common Hebrew idiom often found in the Old Testament to express the idea of siege or invasion (see, for example, verse 9.50; verse 20.19; verse 10.5). The Hebrew expression rendered encamp against refers not only to the Midianites pitching their tents, but also carries the idea of a threat. They camped, literally “upon them.” The pronoun they refers to the group of invaders mentioned in verse 6.3, while the pronoun them refers to the Israelites. We might say “they invaded the land and set up their tents” or “they invaded the Israelites’ land and pitched their tents there.”

And destroy the produce of the land: And (Hebrew waw conjunction) introduces the next chronological event. In some languages it could be expressed by “then,” but in others it will be easier to omit it. The Hebrew verb rendered destroy means “damage,” “ruin,” or “spoil.” It is unlikely that these enemies actually destroyed all the Israelite crops (see verse 6.11). According to the next verse, they allowed their animals to come in and eat up all that was planted, thus destroying what was produced. New Jewish Publication Society’s Tanakh adds a footnote here to indicate that the destruction of the crops took place “by grazing their livestock.” Possible idiomatic expressions for destroy here are “devour,” “eat up,” and “finish.” The produce of the land refers to all that was grown in Israel. Produce may be rendered “crops” or “food.” It may not be necessary to translate the land (ha-ʾerets in Hebrew), though this term has a special significance for the Israelites, referring to the land promised to them by God (see comments on verse 1.2). This reference may express the outrage the Israelites felt at the hands of these invaders.

As far as the neighborhood of Gaza is literally “until you [singular] come to Gaza.” Some languages may have a similar idiom. The word neighborhood does not occur in Hebrew, but is added by Revised Standard Version here. Gaza was a town to the south of Canaan near the Mediterranean Sea in the region occupied by the Philistines. This town will play an important role in the Samson episode (verse 16.1, 21). We might say “all the way to Gaza,” “as far as the outskirts of Gaza” (Revised English Bible, New American Bible), or “as far as the town of Gaza” (Contemporary English Version). Good News Translation makes the direction explicit by saying “as far south as the area around Gaza,” but this kind of detail is not needed here.

And leave no sustenance in Israel: The Hebrew word translated sustenance comes from the participle meaning “living.” This clause can have several possible meanings: (1) the invaders took away so much, there was nothing left to eat (so NET Bible); (2) no living thing was left (so New International Version); or (3) there was nothing left to make a living (so Good News Translation, Revised English Bible). Most versions prefer the last sense, which Good News Translation expresses by saying “and leave nothing for the Israelites to live on.”

And no sheep or ox or ass: This is a list of some of the things that the invaders took away, leaving the Israelites with no means of making a living. Sheep were a source of food, but also supplied skin and wool. The Hebrew word here can refer both to sheep and goats. The Hebrew word for ox is a general word for cattle, a term that can be used here. These livestock served as a source of food, but were also used as beasts of burden in agriculture and other tasks. The ass or donkey was used for work and transport (see comments on verse 1.14). Many languages will have words for all three animals. We might say “no sheep, no donkeys, no domestic animals of any kind.” In Hebrew there is no negative particle at the beginning of this series. Revised Standard Version supplies the word no. In some languages it will be necessary to repeat the negative for emphasis by saying “no sheep, no oxen, no donkeys.” In Hebrew these words are in the singular, but used in a collective sense. It would be appropriate to say “not a single sheep, not a single ox, not a single donkey.” Some languages will prefer to be even more explicit with “there was nothing left: no sheep, no oxen, no donkeys.” Others may want to add a particle or ideophone at the end for emphasis, saying “no sheep, no oxen, no donkeys, finish” or “no sheep, no oxen, no donkeys, nothing.” Revised English Bible may also serve as a model: “They left nothing to support life in Israel, neither sheep nor ox nor donkey.” New Jerusalem Bible is similar with “They left Israel nothing to live on, not a sheep or an ox or a donkey.” This statement is clearly a hyperbole or an exaggeration, and this style continues throughout this account (see also verse 7.12). Here it is meant to emphasize the shock and desolation of the Israelites whose land was overrun.

Some translation models for this verse are:

• They invaded the Israelites’ land, set up their tents, and devoured their crops all the way down to Gaza. They left the Israelites with no means of livelihood: no sheep, no oxen, no donkeys.

• They set up camp and attacked the land all the way to Gaza, devouring everything the land produced. They left nothing for the people of Israel to live on, not any sheep, donkeys or other livestock.

Quoted with permission from Zogbo, Lynell and Ogden, Graham S. A Handbook on Judges. (UBS Helps for Translators). Miami: UBS, 2019. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .