king

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Some languages do not have a concept of kingship and therefore no immediate equivalent for the Greek, Hebrew, Aramaic, and Latin that is translated as “king” in English. Here are some (back-) translations:

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  • Piro: “a great one”
  • Highland Totonac: “the big boss”
  • Huichol: “the one who commanded” (source for this and above: Bratcher / Nida)
  • Ekari: “the one who holds the country” (source: Reiling / Swellengrebel)
  • Una: weik sienyi: “big headman” (source: Kroneman 2004, p. 407)
  • Pass Valley Yali: “Big Man” (source: Daud Soesilo)
  • Ninia Yali: “big brother with the uplifted name” (source: Daud Soesilio in Noss 2007, p. 175)
  • Nyamwezi: mutemi: generic word for ruler, by specifying the city or nation it becomes clear what kind of ruler (source: Pioneer Bible Translators, project-specific translation notes in Paratext)
  • Ghomála’: Fo (“The word Fo refers to the paramount ruler in the kingdoms of West Cameroon. He holds administrative, political, and religious power over his own people, who are divided into two categories: princes (descendants of royalty) and servants (everyone else).” (Source: Michel Kenmogne in Theologizing in Context: An Example from the Study of a Ghomala’ Christian Hymn))

Faye Edgerton retells how the term in Navajo (Dinė) was determined:

“[This term was] easily expressed in the language of Biblical culture, which had kings and noblemen with their brilliant trappings and their position of honor and praise. But leadership among the Navajos is not accompanied by any such titles or distinctions of dress. Those most respected, especially in earlier days, were their headmen, who were the leaders in raids, and the shaman, who was able to serve the people by appealing for them to the gods, or by exorcising evil spirits. Neither of these made any outward show. Neither held his position by political intrigue or heredity. If the headman failed consistently in raids, he was superceded by a better warrior. If the shaman failed many times in his healing ceremonies, it was considered that he was making mistakes in the chants, or had lost favor with the gods, and another was sought. The term Navajos use for headman is derived from a verb meaning ‘to move the head from side to side as in making an oration.’ The headman must be a good orator, able to move the people to go to war, or to follow him in any important decision. This word is naat’áanii which now means ‘one who rules or bosses.’ It is employed now for a foreman or boss of any kind of labor, as well as for the chairman of the tribal council. So in order to show that the king is not just a common boss but the highest ruler, the word ‘aláahgo, which expresses the superlative degree, was put before naat’áanii, and so ‘aláahgo naat’áanii ‘anyone-more-than-being around-he-moves-his-head-the-one-who’ means ‘the highest ruler.’ Naat’áanii was used for governor as the context usually shows that the person was a ruler of a country or associated with kings.”

(Source: Faye Edgerton in The Bible Translator 1962, p. 25ff. )

See also king (Japanese honorifics).

Translation commentary on 2 Maccabees 6:7

Translators may insert a paragraph break here (so Revised Standard Version).

On the monthly celebration of the king’s birthday: The king’s birthday was celebrated once every month. In languages that do not have the passive voice, translators may say “Each month, the foreigners celebrated the king’s birthday” (Contemporary English Version).

The Jews were taken, under bitter constraint, to partake of the sacrifices: During the celebration of the king’s birthday each month the Gentiles sacrificed animals, and the Jews were forced to eat the meat from these animals that had been sacrificed to Greek gods. Partake refers to eating. The Jews were taken, under bitter constraint, to partake of … may be rendered “the Jews were cruelly forced to eat…,” “the Jews were compelled by brute force to eat…” (Good News Bible), or even “the Gentiles cruelly [or, brutally] forced the Jews to eat….” The Greek word translated sacrifices refers literally to the internal organs of the animals, which were eaten first. This word includes the “intestines” (Good News Bible), the heart, the lungs, the liver, and other internal organs, so it may be rendered “insides” or “inner organs.” In Jewish sacrifices these portions were usually burned, not eaten. The point is not that the Jews were compelled to eat disgusting food, but that they were forced to eat meat from animals that were sacrificed to Greek gods.

And when the feast of Dionysus came: The connector and may be rendered “Besides this” (Contemporary English Version). The feast of Dionysus was celebrated at least once a year, sometimes twice. It was a festival in honor of the god of wine, Dionysus. Good News Bible provides a helpful model here, saying “Then, during the festival in honor of the wine god Dionysus.”

They were compelled to walk in the procession in honor of Dionysus, wearing wreaths of ivy: People celebrating the festival wore wreaths of ivy on their heads. Ivy was a sacred plant used in the worship of Dionysus. The Jews were forced to honor this Greek god by wearing wreaths (or, garlands) woven out of sprigs of ivy on their heads.

A model for the second half of this verse is:

• Besides this, during the festival when they honored the wine god Dionysus, the foreigners [or, Gentiles] forced the Jews to walk in parades wearing wreaths [or, garlands] made from ivy on their heads.

Quoted with permission from Bullard, Roger A. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on 1-2 Maccabees. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2011. For this and other handbooks for translators see here.