lamb

The term that is translated as “lamb” in English is typically translated as “offspring of a sheep” in Ixcatlán Mazatec since there is no specific word for “lamb.” Since this could distract readers with thoughts of God being the sheep when the “lamb” refers to Jesus the translation into Ixcatlán Mazatec chose “little (individual) sheep” for those cases. (Source: Robert Bascom)

In Dëne Súline the native term for “lamb” directly translated as “the young one of an evil little caribou.” To avoid the negative connotation, a loan word from the neighboring South Slavey was used. (Source: NCEM, p. 70)

In Nenets it is translated as xu’ suyu or “young reindeer made of sheep.” Andrei S. Desnitsky explains (in: The Bible Translator 2018, p. 233ff. ): “For Arctic people, the usual sacrificial animal is a reindeer. Their whole life depends on breeding them, so they have many words for reindeer, depending on their age, gender, or function. For the Lamb, the Nenets translators (a Samoyed language spoken in northern Russia) have chosen the word suyu, which typically designates a young male reindeer, the most obvious choice for a sacrifice. Nevertheless, they did not want to break completely with the Russian tradition (Russian being the second if not the first language for most ethnic Nenets). So they added the word xu’, which normally qualifies sheep skin or some other product made from these animals. The expression xu’ suyu ‘young reindeer made of sheep’ looks biologically impossible, but it is quite plausible in the given context, since the first word indicates the exact species and the second one the age and the role of the animal. Thus it could be argued that ‘reindeer’ is not a necessary component of meaning for suyu, at least in this expression where it refers to a young animal suitable for a sacrifice.”

For the Kasua translation, it took a long process to find the right term. Rachel Greco (in The PNG Experience ) tells this story:

“To the Kasua people of Western Province, every four-legged animal is a pig. They call a horse a pig-horse, a cow, a pig-cow, and a sheep, a pig-sheep, because all of these animals have four legs, which is kopolo, or pig, in their language.

“When the translation team would translate the word, ‘sheep’ in the New Testament, they would translate it as ‘pig-sheep’. So when Jesus is referred to as the ‘Lamb,’ (John 1:29; Rev. 12:11; Rev. 17:14), they translated as ‘pig-sheep’ so that in John 1:29 it would read: ‘Behold, the pig-sheep of God.’

“When some members of the translation team attended the Translators Training Course, they had the opportunity to observe and study sheep for the first time. As they watched and learned more about the animals’ behavior, their understanding of these creatures—and God’s Word—rotated on its axis.

“Once during the course, Logan and Konni — the translation team’s helpers — were driving with the team to a Bible dedication when Amos, one of the team members, said passionately, ‘We can’t use the word kopolo in front of the word, ‘sheep’! Pigs know when they’re about to die and squeal and scream.’ The team had often watched villagers tie up pigs so they wouldn’t escape.

“’But,’ Amos said, ‘Jesus didn’t do that.’ The team had learned that sheep are quiet and still when death walks toward them. They had observed, as they translated the New Testament, the words of Isaiah 53 fulfilled: ‘Like a lamb led to the slaughter, he did not open his mouth.’ And now they understood what it meant. For this reason, the team decided not to put pig-sheep in the New Testament for the word ‘sheep,’ but used sheep-animal or, in their language, a:pele sipi.

“The Kasua translation team also chose to discard the word ‘pig’ before sheep because pigs are unclean animals to the Jews. The team knew that Jesus was called the ‘Lamb of God’ in the New Testament to show that he is unblemished and clean. Hopefully the Lord will open up the Kasua villagers’ eyes to these same truths about Jesus as they read of Him in their own language.”

See also The Paschal Lamb, sheep, and sheep / lamb.

The Paschal Lamb

Artwork by Sister Marie Claire , SMMI (1937–2018) from Bengaluru, India.

For more information about images by Sister Marie Claire and ways to purchase them as lithographs, see here .

For other images of Sister Marie Claire paintings in TIPs, see here.

Passover Sacrifice

The following is an 1880 stained glass window from the Pfarrkirche Hl. Petrus & Paulus, Andelsbuch, Austria:

Source: Art in the Christian Tradition , a project of the Vanderbilt University Divinity Library, Nashville, TN. Original source: Wikimedia

Stained glass is not just highly decorative, it’s a medium which has been used to express important religious messages for centuries. Literacy was not widespread in the medieval and Renaissance periods and the Church used stained glass and other artworks to teach the central beliefs of Christianity. In Gothic churches, the windows were filled with extensive narrative scenes in stained glass — like huge and colorful picture storybooks — in which worshipers could ‘read’ the stories of Christ and the saints and learn what was required for their religious salvation. (Source: Victoria and Albert Museum )

complete verse (Exodus 12:3)

Following are a number of back-translations as well as a sample translation for translators of Exodus 12:3:

  • Kupsabiny: “Tell all the people of Israel that when the tenth day of this month has reached, let each man in/for his home get a goat/lamb, one for each (home).” (Source: Kupsabiny Back Translation)
  • Newari: “Tell all the people of Israelites that on the tenth day of this month every one of you must get a lamb for his family, one for each household.” (Source: Newari Back Translation)
  • Hiligaynon: “[You (plur.)] announce/inform/proclaim (it) to the whole community of Israel that on the tenth day of this month, each family is-to-prepare one sheep or goat.” (Source: Hiligaynon Back Translation)
  • Bariai: “And the two of you will speak to all the people of Israel as follows: On this month’s ten[th] day, each and every father of a house will choose one of their sipsips or memes.” (Source: Bariai Back Translation)
  • Opo: “Therefore, you go tell it for people of Israel all that, on tenth day on this month, a man from his family, let him go choose child of sheep/goats one.” (Source: Opo Back Translation)
  • English: “Tell all the Israeli people that in each family, the man who heads the family must select a lamb or a young goat for his household.” (Source: Translation for Translators)

sheep / lamb

Before the time of Abraham at least five breeds of sheep had already been developed in Mesopotamia. From mummified remains (that is, preserved dead bodies) and ancient art it is also known that at least two different breeds had reached Egypt by about 2000 B.C. Thus it is likely that the sheep mentioned in the Bible were of more than one breed.

The Hebrew word kar seems to be used of imported foreign sheep and may refer to a special breed but some scholars think it refers to a wether (castrated ram), since this word is never used in the context of sacrifice. This word is also used for a battering ram, that is, a heavy pole suspended on a rope, used in war for breaking down walls. ’Ayil is the word for a ram or adult male sheep, rachel is a breeding ewe or female sheep, and taleh is a very young lamb, probably still unweaned. The remaining Hebrew words refer to sheep in general.

The Greek word probaton is the general word for sheep, or flocks that may include goats. Krios is the Greek word for a ram or male sheep. Pascha is a technical name for the Passover lamb exclusively, and the remaining Greek words all mean lamb. Ovis is the Latin word for sheep.

Click or tap here for the rest of this entry in United Bible Societies’ All Creatures Great and Small: Living things in the Bible.

The early Hebrews were nomadic shepherds to whom sheep were the most important domestic animal. While goats eat almost any vegetation, sheep are much more selective about the grasses and plants they eat. This meant that suitable grazing for them was not always easy to find, and shepherds had to keep moving their flocks from place to place. This led to a nomadic lifestyle, with movable tents rather than houses being the normal household shelter. It was not until the occupation of Canaan after the Exodus that the lifestyle of the Israelites changed, and they became settled village-dwelling farmers and fruit growers.

However, even then, most households owned sheep, and some family members would function as shepherds, often living away from home for fairly long periods.

Sheep in the Bible were a source of meat, milk, wool, hides, and horns, and it seems likely that various strains were bred selectively to enhance production of these commodities. Wool is mentioned in the Bible as early as the Mosaic Law, which forbade the weaving of cloth containing both wool and plant fibers. The shearing of sheep is mentioned even earlier, in Genesis 31:19. Wool was in fact the most common and available fiber known to the people of Israel.

There was a very extensive wool trade in biblical times, stretching from Egypt to China. In the Middle East wool was cheaper than cotton or linen, which were the other common fibers. (Silk was known by the time of Solomon, but it was extremely expensive as it was produced in China and handled by numerous traders on its way west.) It would be a mistake to think of all wool at that time as being white, as Genesis 30 indicates quite clearly that there were also dark colored sheep and sheep that had dark and light patches, probably varying combinations of black, white, and brown.

We can be fairly sure that one breed of sheep known to the Israelites was the Fat-tailed Sheep Ovis laticaudata and that its fatty tail is referred to in Exodus 29:22, Leviticus 3:9 et al.

Rams’ horns had a variety of uses. Whole ram horns were used as drinking vessels, jars, and trumpets. But pieces of horn were used as handles for knives and other household implements, and for jewelry such as bracelets and beads. Needles too, and probably also arrow heads, were made from horn, as well as from bone and later from bronze and iron.

Sheep were also very important in Israelite religion. They were a very important element in the sacrificial system and in the traditional religious feasts, especially the Feast of Passover.

Sheep and goats belong to the same general family. They differ in that sheep produce wool, which is a special type of soft hair, among the ordinary hairs on their bodies. A ram’s horns too differ in shape from a goat’s horns, those of a ram curling down in a tight spiral beside its face, with those of a goat curving more gently back towards its shoulders. The sheep of biblical times produced much shorter wool than is common with wool-bearing breeds of today.

The fat-tailed or broad-tailed sheep is a smallish breed usually brown and white with a very broad tail. Like most other breeds of sheep in the Middle East it has large floppy ears.

Sheep are generally fairly timid animals, lacking the self-confidence and adaptability of goats. While goats will spread out in their search for food and then regroup without much difficulty, sheep become very insecure when they are separated from other sheep and tend to stay bunched together. They thus require a lot of shepherding. In the Middle East the method of shepherding involves training the dominant ram to follow the shepherd. The remaining sheep then follow this dominant ram, which often wears a wooden clapper or a bell. As they feed, the sheep usually keep within earshot of this sound. It is likely that this method is centuries old.

In most modern breeds only male sheep have horns, but in most ancient breeds female sheep had short horns too. This made separating sheep from goats in a single flock more difficult than it is today.

Of all animals the sheep was the most important for the Israelite nation. It had great religious, social, and economic importance.

In the Bible sheep are a common metaphor for the people of Israel and perhaps for people in general. Like sheep the people are seen as easily going astray (Psalms 119:176; Isaiah 53:6; Jeremiah 50:6; 1 Peter 2:25), as being in need of guidance and protection (1 Kings 22:17; 2 Chronicles 18:16; Matthew 9:36; Mark 6:34), as being very defenseless (Isaiah 52:7), and as being destined to an early death (Psalms 44:22; Jeremiah 12:3; Romans 8:36).

The metaphor of a lamb is used in the New Testament to refer to Christ, with an emphasis on his being a sacrifice for the sin of the world. This is especially the case in John’s gospel and Revelation. In the latter book the metaphor is introduced in a very striking way. In Revelation 5:5 as the writer is mourning the fact that no one can be found to open the scroll, he is comforted by one of the elders who tells him that “the Lion of the tribe of Judah” has triumphed and can thus open the scroll. Then the writer, expecting to see the Lion, sees instead a Lamb that looks as if it has been killed for sacrifice. The remainder of the book is then concerned with describing the triumph of this Lamb over the forces of evil.

In the gospels Jesus also refers to his disciples as “sheep” and “lambs” (Matthew 10:17; John 10:1 et al.).

The metaphor of the shepherd is extended to God himself who is the ultimate “Shepherd of Israel” (Psalms 23:1; 80:1). Then those who are responsible for the nurture, guidance, ruling, and protection of Israel, be it kings, prophets, or priests, are also likened to shepherds (Isaiah 56:11; Jeremiah 23:4; 49:19; Ezekiel 34:2; Zechariah 10:2).

The Messiah is also called a shepherd (Isaiah 40:11), and Jesus refers to himself as “the good shepherd” (John 10:11). In Hebrews 13:20 he is referred to as “the great shepherd of the sheep” and in 1 Peter 2:25 he is called “the Shepherd and Guardian of your lives”.

In languages that have a word for sheep, it is advisable to translate according to the meanings given above. If possible, the feminine forms should be translated as “female lamb” or “female sheep”. In languages in which sheep are not known, a word has usually been coined or borrowed by the time Bible translation begins, and this word should be used. It is not advisable to substitute another locally well-known animal in this case, since doing so negates the ritual and symbolic importance that sheep had for the biblical cultures.

In translating Psalms 23:1 it is extremely important to make sure that the phrase “my shepherd” preserves the relationship intended by the writer and reflects the psalmist’s theme that Yahweh is his benefactor, protector, and guide. There are really two metaphors involved in the opening verse-the caring shepherd (God) and by clear implication, the dependent sheep (the psalmist). In many languages the literal phrase “my shepherd” depicts a wrong relationship, meaning something like “the one who looks after my sheep” or “the one I employ to watch my sheep.” In many African languages unwary translators have produced a rendering that means “The Chief is (nothing more than) my herdsman.” It is often necessary to restructure the whole verse as something like “I am a sheep, and the lord is my shepherd.”

Sheep with lamb, photo by Ray Pritz

Source: All Creatures Great and Small: Living things in the Bible (UBS Helps for Translators)

See also sheep, lamb, and shepherd.

Translation commentary on Exod 12:3

Tell is second person plural, meaning “You [plural] must tell.” All the congregation of Israel uses the word ʿedah, meaning “gathering” or “assembly,” so one may say “the whole community” (Good News Translation, Revised English Bible) or “all the people of Israel.” (See the comment at verse 6.) The word for that literally means “saying,” and it may introduce either direct or indirect speech. Revised Standard Version uses indirect speech, since the Israelites are referred to in the third person, they. But Good News Translation and others use direct speech, changing to second person plural, since all of the following verses up to 12.27 are Yahweh’s instructions to be given to the Israelites. So the opening words in Good News Translation are “Give these instructions to the whole community of Israel,” and what follow are the exact words of Yahweh addressed to the people.

On the tenth day of this month assumes that Yahweh is speaking to Moses and Aaron on the first day. They shall take every man means “each man is to take” (New International Version). If direct speech is used, the they will become “you” plural. But since every man refers to the head of the family, New American Bible has “every one of your families,” or one may say “the head of each family” (Contemporary English Version). Shall take may be expressed as “must choose” (Good News Translation) or “must procure” (New American Bible), for they were to select a lamb for the sacrifice.

The word for lamb is used for young goats as well as young lambs, so Good News Translation has “a lamb or a young goat” (so also Revised English Bible and Contemporary English Version). This is made clear in verse 5, so New Jerusalem Bible uses the more generic term “animal.” Others, however, place a footnote here explaining that the Hebrew word may mean either lamb or young goat (New Jewish Publication Society’s Tanakh, New International Version, New American Standard Bible, and Translator’s Old Testament). Making this clear in the text is preferable to adding a footnote. (See the comment on “sheep” and “goats” at 2.16.)

According to their fathers’ houses, literally “for a house of fathers,” is better expressed as “for each family” (New Revised Standard Version). A lamb for a household (literally, “for a house”) seems to repeat the same idea, but it defines more exactly what is meant. There may be more than one family in one household. Good News Translation therefore combines the two, using the more exact clarification “for his household.” The next verse shows that the animal is for eating. So it is possible to translate this final clause as “for his household [or, family] to eat.” An alternative translation model for this final sentence is “that on the tenth day of this month, the head of each family must choose a lamb or a young goat for his family to eat.”

Quoted with permission from Osborn, Noel D. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on Exodus. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 1999. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .