bath ya‘anah / eagle owl

Owls are found worldwide except in the Antarctic and on some islands. They are active at night and are characterized by flat faces and short hooked beaks that they can open very wide. They swallow their prey whole and later regurgitate the undigested parts as small balls. They also have the ability to turn their heads more than 180 degrees.

There are two basic owl families, both of which are found in the land of Israel. One family is the Tytonidae, which are the Barn and Grass Owls. They have heart-shaped whitish faces, usually outlined by a dark line, and small dark eyes. The other family is the Strigidae, the typical owls. This family contains a large variety of species, all of which have large eyes that may vary in color from light brown through orange to yellow. This family includes the eared or horned owls, the fairly rare fishing owls, and owls that vary in size from the midget scops owl (less than 20 centimeters [8 inches]) through to the giant eagle owl (over 70 centimeters [28 inches]).

Eight species of owl are fairly common in the land of Israel. Most are very seldom seen by humans, but they are quite well known by their different and distinct calls. In biblical times the nights would have been much quieter than in most modern places, and the strange night sounds probably would have interested people, causing some speculation about what was making the sound. The different owls would thus probably have had different names even if people had never seen them. In fact it is unlikely that they would have been able to associate most of the calls with the owls that were seen.

Some scholars have linked bath ya‘anah with the word ya‘en, which is the ostrich. In view of the contexts in which the word occurs, however, it does not seem that this is a likely interpretation. In the biblical contexts it can be seen that the bath ya‘anah is linked with jackals, deserted ruins, and wailing sounds. It also seems to be reliant on water (compare Isaiah 43:20). None of these are contexts into which the ostrich would fit easily. Furthermore, while it is easy to see the reason why certain birds are listed as unclean, from their diet or association with foreign deities, it is not easy to see why ostriches would be included in the list. They are basically vegetarian, like domestic fowls. The only possible reason would be that since they cannot fly, they were considered somehow “unnatural,” as was the bat.

Other scholars have derived the name from an Arabic word meaning “desert,” and still others from an Aramaic word meaning “greedy.” Hasting’s Dictionary of the Bible suggests that it refers to the eagle owl, and from its position in the list of unclean birds this seems a distinct possibility. The “desert-owl” of New English Bible and Revised English Bible is not a distinct species but a general word for owls that live away from towns.

Eagle owls are the giants in the owl family. The European Eagle Owl Bubo bubo is the largest owl in the Middle East, standing over 75 centimeters (30 inches) tall. The corresponding owl in the land of Israel is a pale fawn color, spotted, has ear tufts, and is best known by its loud, deep hooting at night. It roosts by day in deep shade in acacia trees, caves, tombs, and ruined buildings. It feeds on small mammals, including hares, baby gazelles, lambs, rats and mice, and large roosting birds, especially wild and domestic ducks. It is sometimes seen when it is roosting during the day, or when disturbed in a cave or old tomb, but it is seldom seen at night, except in modern times when it is sometimes seen on roads late at night.

In the Bible this owl is associated with death, mourning, and ruin, as well as being listed as an unclean bird.

Eagle owls of one species or another are found in southern and eastern Europe and throughout Africa and South and Southeast Asia. Large owls of a slightly different kind are found in Australasia. The two most common African eagle owls are the Spotted Eagle Owl Bubo africanus and the Giant Eagle Owl Bubo lacteus (known as Verreaux’s eagle owl in East Africa). The Asian Eagle Owl Bubo indicus is found in hilly wooded or forested country away from towns. The largest Australian owl is the Great Scrub Owl Ninox strenua. A word for any of these owls, or a phrase meaning “giant owl”, would be a close local equivalent to use in the lists of unclean birds. In other contexts, a phrase such as “large owls” would be sufficient.

Eagle owl, Wikimedia Commons

Source: All Creatures Great and Small: Living things in the Bible (UBS Helps for Translators)

seagull

All modern English translations, except New English Bible and Revised English Bible (which have “long-eared owl”), render shachaf as “seagull” or “gull”, and this reflects the overwhelming consensus among scholars. This is also the meaning in modern Hebrew, while the tern (a relative of the gull) is called shechafit (“little gull”).

It is likely that in biblical times this word referred to all seabirds with long narrow wings, including gulls, terns, skuas, coursers, shearwaters, and others. There are at least twelve common species of this family of birds found in Israel, along the coastal areas and on Lake Galilee. The most common are the Black-headed Gull Larus ridibundus, the Herring Gull Larus argentatus, the Common Tern Sterna hirundo, and the Little Tern Sterna albifrons.

Seagulls, as their name suggests, are seabirds, living on the coasts of seas and lakes. Some of their relatives, the terns and skimmers, are also found on the great rivers of the world, such as the Amazon, Nile, Zambezi, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Mekong, Murray, and Mississippi. Some are even found on smaller rivers and ponds. Gulls are bigger than terns and have heavier beaks, with some species having a noticeable hook at the tip.
Most of the birds in this family are white with gray or black backs and upper wing surfaces. They have long flexible wings. They feed on fish or plankton, usually settling on the water to feed. Some dive into the water for their food, and many are also shoreline scavengers, eating dead fish, crabs, and shellfish. They typically follow fishing boats to eat scraps or discarded fish.

They are listed among the unclean birds.

Since gulls and terns are found worldwide near the sea or any other significant body of water, a local name will not be difficult to find in such areas. Both of the terns mentioned above occur worldwide, migrating from one hemisphere to the other. The black-headed gull is found in Europe and Africa. In drier or mountainous inland parts of the world where neither gulls or terns are known, a phrase such as “seabird” can be used.

Source: All Creatures Great and Small: Living things in the Bible (UBS Helps for Translators)

complete verse (Leviticus 11:16)

Following are a number of back-translations as well as a sample translation for translators of Leviticus 11:16:

  • Kupsabiny: “(big) eagle, (another) eagle, small kites of all kinds,” (Source: Kupsabiny Back Translation)
  • Newari: “Among the birds, these are the ones that will be considered repulsive. For example, various types of eagles, vultures, hawks, crows, cranes, owls, swans ospreys, and bats. It is not OK to eat the flesh of these [birds].” (Source: Newari Back Translation)
  • Hiligaynon: “You (plur.) are- not -to-eat the birds that are-like eagles, crows/ravens; birds that eat a corpse of a person or an animal, falcons, owls, vultures, birds that swoop-down-upon/pounce-upon fish, a-sort-of-white-herons, storks/cranes, and fruit-eating-bats. You (plur.) are-to-consider these birds detestable.” (Source: Hiligaynon Back Translation)
  • English: “horned owls, screech owls, seagulls, any kind of hawk,” (Source: Translation for Translators)

sea / lake

The various Greek, Aramaic, Ge’ez, and Latin and Hebrew terms that are translated as “sea,” “ocean,” or “lake” in English are all translated in Chichewa with one term: nyanja. Malawi, where Chichewa is spoken, has a lot of lakes but does not share a border with the ocean. (Source: Mawu a Mulungu mu Chichewa Chalero Back Translation)

Translation commentary on Leviticus 11:13 - 11:19

These verses deal with the third category of creatures which the Hebrews considered “birds.” The terminology used in that day does not correspond exactly to that which is known in the modern world and may also be at variance with other views of what constitutes a “bird.” For example, in many languages the bat mentioned in verse 19 cannot be called a “bird.” The list is made up of no less than twenty species, which leads many commentators to believe that it was intended to be exhaustive (the parallel list in Deut 14.12-18 has twenty-one names). Ten of these names appear only here and in the Deuteronomy 14 list, but nowhere else in the Old Testament. Five others are found in only one additional case outside the two lists. For this reason it is extremely difficult to identify with any degree of certainty all the species involved. Even the ancient versions such as Greek and Latin demonstrate considerable differences in their translation of these names.

In Hebrew all the names on the list are given in singular form (compare Revised Standard Version), but Good News Translation has taken into account the fact that they are collective nouns and has made them plural in translation.

Since this is the beginning of the third group discussed in this chapter, a new paragraph should be started here. It may be well in many languages to use the same kind of introductory sentence as in verses 2b and 9. The passive formulation shall not be eaten may be rendered “You must not eat….”

The repetition of the idea they are an abomination (compare verse 10) is significant because it appears for emphasis. Unless these repetitions are unacceptably awkward in the receptor language, it will be well to retain them in translation.

Many of the names on this list are followed by the expression according to its kind (compare Gen 1), which seems to indicate that the species in question is divided into two or more subgroups. In one case (verse 15) the name is preceded by the word “all” or “any” (every raven in Revised Standard Version), but this does not really change the meaning. So it has been omitted in Good News Translation.

The second word in verse 18 is usually translated pelican because of the ancient Greek and Latin renderings, but some commentators find this unconvincing in the light of the fact that this same bird is mentioned in Isaiah 34.11, Zephaniah 2.14, and Psalm 102.7 as one living in the desert or in ruins. Perhaps the renderings of New International Version or New English Bible are more likely.

In some languages it may be necessary to translate several terms by a single word in the receptor language. For example, there may be only one word for the various kinds of owls mentioned in the list. Translators may then have to say “the different kinds of owls” or something similar. In other languages there may be no word for certain of the birds in the list. If this is the case, it may be necessary to resort to a borrowing which is explained in a footnote or glossary entry. And although the final term in the list may not be considered a bird in the receptor language, it must be remembered that it was apparently included in this category in ancient Jewish thinking. So it should be a part of the bird list in this passage and not be placed in a special category. Even though the receptor-language classification of birds may be entirely different from the Old Testament system, the translator must respect what is found in the text. But an explanatory footnote will certainly be acceptable.

Quoted with permission from Péter-Contesse, René and Ellington, John. A Handbook on Leviticus. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 1990. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .