Made my teeth grind on gravel is literally “broke my teeth on gravel,” which is somewhat ambiguous. The sense can be “He made me chew gravel and so ground down my teeth,” or “He pushed my face into the rocks and broke my teeth,” or “He hit me in the teeth with rocks and so broke them.” It is probably best understood as a figure of extreme suffering or humiliation. In other words, the poet’s suffering is like rocks breaking the teeth. Bible en français courant says suitably “He made me chew rocks,” or we may say “He made me suffer, and it was like breaking my teeth on rocks.”

The Hebrew verb translated cower (to crouch down from fear) is changed by some scholars to mean “to feed someone,” and so New English Bible has “fed on ashes.” Hebrew Old Testament Text Project gives the Hebrew text an “A” rating and translates “He laid me in the dust.”

Both expressions in this verse may be taken to mean that the man was humiliated, degraded, rejected. In translation it may be necessary to make this point clear by saying, for example, “He made me bite rocks which broke my teeth, and put me down in the dust to show that I was worth nothing.”

Quoted with permission from Reyburn, William D. A Handbook on Lamentations. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 1992. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .

My eyes flow with rivers of tears is similar to part of the first unit of 1.16. See there for comments. In translation it may be helpful to shift to the use of a simile in this verse and say, for example, “I cry and tears flow from my eyes as a river flows with water.”

The reason for the poet’s weeping is the destruction of the daughter of my people; this expression occurs also in 2.11. In some languages it will be necessary to place the cause for the weeping at the beginning; for example, “My people have been killed, and this makes tears flow like a river from my eyes.”

Quoted with permission from Reyburn, William D. A Handbook on Lamentations. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 1992. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .

They wandered: there is no way of telling from the Hebrew who They refers to; however, in the light of verse 13, it is best to assume that They refers back to the prophets and priests. In some languages They will have to be identified, otherwise the pronoun may refer to the innocent people in verse 13. Good News Translation says “Her leaders.” It may be even clearer to say “These prophets and priests.” Wandered blind is probably to be taken as a simile, “They wandered like blind men through the streets.”

These prophets and priests, who are said to have shed the blood of innocent people in verse 13, are now defiled with blood. The blood with which these religious men are defiled is not their own blood but that of their victims. So those whose religious duties involved keeping themselves undefiled by others were now so stained with the blood of their victims that others would not even touch their clothes. According to Leviticus 21.11 the priests were not allowed to have contact with dead bodies, in order to maintain their purity, but now they cannot avoid such contacts. Defiled means having become ritually unclean, or unacceptable. “Unclean” or “dirty” are in most cases not suitable translations of defiled, since they only suggest physical filth. A term is required that has to do with ritual taboo, or unacceptability. Many languages have such terms, particularly in the sense of “taboo.” In some languages such terms as “made forbidden” or “carrying the badness” express the idea.

In the case of a tabooed object, a person does not possess the power to protect himself from the power of the tabooed thing if he should happen to touch it. In the present case the priests have become taboo through their contact with the blood of the dead; and because of this they are a threat to the safety of the people, so that “no one would touch them” (Good News Translation).

Quoted with permission from Reyburn, William D. A Handbook on Lamentations. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 1992. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .

This verse is exceptional in that the Hebrew text has eight half-lines instead of the six half-lines in each of the other verses in this chapter. Accordingly some scholars propose deleting one pair; however, there is little agreement on which pair should be dropped. Revised Standard Version and Good News Translation retain all the lines. Good News Translation‘s first line corresponds to the whole of the first half of the verse in Hebrew. Most modern translations retain all eight half-lines, and users of this Handbook are encouraged to do the same.

Jerusalem remembers …: Jerusalem is pictured as a person recalling the past. In languages in which Jerusalem remembers is not natural, it will be necessary to say, for example, “The people of Jerusalem remember” or “Those who lived in Jerusalem remember.” In some languages it will be necessary to place the subordinate clause first; for example, “During the time of her suffering and wandering…” or “While the people of Jerusalem suffered and wandered….”

In the days … bitterness refers to the time when the thoughts of the people turn to the days of old or the former great times. Revised Standard Version has changed the Hebrew word for “wandering” to bitterness. See Revised Standard Version footnote. The Hebrew Old Testament Text Project (Hebrew Old Testament Text Project) gives “wandering” an “A” rating, meaning that this word is without doubt the original sense, and so recommends “and of her wandering.”

All the precious things that were hers from days of old are the things the people of Jerusalem remember. These things are not specified, but she has had them for a very long time. Bible en français courant translates “Jerusalem remembers all that was precious from a long time ago.” Good News Translation shortens the expression and calls these “her ancient splendor,” in order to relate this line to the first half-line in verse 6.

When her people fell into the hand of the foe states the event that caused these precious things to become memories. Fell into the hand of the foe is a figure of speech meaning to be conquered, defeated by the enemy. This expression may sometimes be translated “When the enemies conquered them,” “When they were defeated by their enemies,” or “When the enemies defeated Jerusalem’s people.”

None to help her: that is, there was no nation to help Jerusalem; this may also be understood in a general sense that not even God helped her, and so we may translate “there was no one to help fight against Jerusalem’s enemies.”

The foe gloated over her: gloated translates the verb “see,” which is also used in Psalm 22.17, “they stare and gloat over me.” In the context this is a special way of seeing or staring at the defeated enemy. Gloat means to stare with joy at someone who is suffering. The one who stares in this way experiences evil satisfaction. In some languages this may be translated “the enemy smiled when they saw how the people of Jerusalem suffered” or “Jerusalem’s enemies laughed when they saw how she suffered.”

Mocking at her downfall: mocking translates the Hebrew for “they laughed.” This laughter, like the gloating in the previous half-line, is a wicked laughter that rejoices at the sight of someone else’s misfortune. Good News Translation “Her conquerors laughed at her downfall” is a good translation model. Downfall means “defeat,” “destruction,” “loss.” Another model is “those who defeated Jerusalem laughed at her.”

Quoted with permission from Reyburn, William D. A Handbook on Lamentations. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 1992. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .

In this verse the poet continues to address Jerusalem in the second person. Translators will notice that verse 17 is not divided in the same way in all translations. For example, Revised Standard Version and Good News Translation divide it into three parts, but New English Bible and New International Version divide it into two, linking as he ordained … with the clauses before it, and demolished without pity with the last part of the verse. The Revised Standard Version and Good News Translation line divisions reflect the parallel units. The first half-lines of the first and second units are closely parallel in sense, as are the corresponding second half-lines. The third unit makes clear what the first two units refer to.

The LORD has done what he purposed: purposed translates a word meaning “planned, decided, intended.”

Has carried out his threat, which is literally “fulfilled his word,” is parallel in meaning and more definite than the first clause.

As pointed out above, as he ordained long ago is understood by some to be linked with carried out his threat. In other words, “He ordered a long time ago that his threat would be carried out.” If the translator links this last clause with the ones before it, then the following clauses should be joined to each other. On the other hand, it is also possible to retain the clause linkage as in Revised Standard Version, so that the flow of ideas may be rendered, for example, “Just as he decided long ago, he has now demolished Jerusalem without pity.”

The emphasis here is on the fulfillment of predictions made long ago. Just how far back in the past these prophecies were spoken is not indicated. There may be a reference here to the words of such prophets as Amos and Hosea, or possibly to the traditions underlying such passages as Leviticus 26.14-16, 25 and Deuteronomy 28.25. In any event the poet is saying that God made up his mind a long time before, and now he is carrying out his plans. In translation it will often be necessary to present the historical order of the events of planning the destruction and then the destruction itself; for example, “Long ago God decided to destroy Jerusalem; now he has done it.”

He had made the enemy rejoice over you shows how the poet attributes the enemy’s success to God. Over you may require saying “over your defeat,” or more fully, “he has caused the enemy to be glad because you have been defeated,” or “… because you are a destroyed city.”

Exalted the might of your foes is literally “he has raised up the horn of your foes.” For comments on “horn” as a symbol of power and pride, see verse 3. This expression may be translated, for example, “he has increased the strength of your enemies” or “he has made your enemies stronger and stronger.”

Quoted with permission from Reyburn, William D. A Handbook on Lamentations. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 1992. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .

The third verse beginning with the Hebrew word for “good” starts in the same way as verse 26. Man does not single out a male in contrast to a female, and so it may be rendered “a person, anyone,” that is, “It is good for anyone…” or simply “It is good to learn to be patient….”

Bear the yoke is a metaphor referring to the yoke placed on the necks of working animals to enable them to pull together. For comments see 1.14. The sense of the expression is, as in Good News Translation, “to learn patience.” Bible en français courant says “submit himself to restraint,” Biblia Dios Habla Hoy “humble himself.” Interpreters differ in regard to in his youth and “from his youth,” which is found in some Hebrew and Greek manuscripts and in the Vulgate. Hebrew Old Testament Text Project supports Revised Standard Version. This verse may be translated, for example, “It is good for a person to learn to be patient while he is still young.”

Quoted with permission from Reyburn, William D. A Handbook on Lamentations. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 1992. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .

The language of the law court continues into verse 59, which Good News Translation opens with “Judge in my favor.” The Hebrew verb here is an imperative, but New English Bible follows the Septuagint in making the wording of this verse parallel to the wording of verse 58: “and gavest judgment in my favour.” However, parallelism with the previous verse is not a strong enough argument for altering the Hebrew text, which leads on appropriately to the remaining verses of the chapter with their appeal to God for justice.

The wrong done to me is passive and may need to be expressed in an active form; for example, “LORD, you have seen the wrongs my enemies have done to me” or “… you have seen how my enemies have wronged me.”

Judge thou my cause: judge is a command, although, for the sake of parallelism with verse 58, New English Bible translates “and gavest judgment in my favour.” It is best, however, to follow the Hebrew text along with Revised Standard Version and Good News Translation “Judge in my favor”; this may also be rendered “Give me justice” or “Do what is right for me.”

In some cases it is necessary to make clear the reason the poet is asking God to be his judge; that is, because God knows how he has been injured unjustly by his enemies. This may be expressed as, for example, “My enemies have done many evil things to me. So now, LORD, decide my case and show that I am right.”

Quoted with permission from Reyburn, William D. A Handbook on Lamentations. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 1992. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .

Orphans and widows were traditionally looked upon in Israel as the members of society who were most in need of protection. Here the poet emphasizes the lack of protection for the people living in Jerusalem. The men have either been killed in battle or been taken away into captivity. So those left behind are orphans in the sense that they have lost their fathers.

Good News Translation and others expand what is in Hebrew “no fathers” to a statement which explains the reason for their being orphans: “Our fathers have been killed….” Bible en français courant is better because it retains orphans: “Our fathers are no longer there, and so we are orphans.”

In some languages the word orphan does not apply to a child who has lost only the father—both parents are understood to be dead. In other languages a child is called an orphan only until he or she reaches a certain age. In cases where there is no term at all for orphan, it will often be necessary to say, for example, “We are children without a father,” or “We are children without fathers because the enemy killed them,” or “… the enemy has taken them away.”

This restructuring also gives the reason for the mothers being widows. However, the expression like widows raises the question whether the husbands have been killed (as in Good News Translation) or are no longer there (as in Bible en français courant). Some interpreters take like widows to mean that perhaps the husbands and fathers are still living but are in exile, and so the women are left without the help and protection of their men. However, the Hebrew preposition used here probably has the same function as in 1.20, where it means not “like death” but “there is death.”

Quoted with permission from Reyburn, William D. A Handbook on Lamentations. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 1992. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .