The nations of the dragons of Arabia shall come out with many chariots: The dragons of Arabia are thought to represent Palmyrene military forces who prevented King Sapor I of Persia (240–273 A.D.) from conquering Syria and removing the province of Asia (roughly modern Turkey) from the Roman Empire. Palmyra was a city in central Syria. Arabia appears to be used in the broadest sense of the great desert that reached as far as the outskirts of Palmyra. Dragons are imaginary animals in the folklore of many peoples. To some they are symbols of good luck, but to most, they are usually thought of as similar to snakes, but with legs, hissing and breathing fire. Here they are an image for the armies of Arabia. Good News Bible keeps the picture of dragons by rendering this clause as “Arab armies with many chariots will advance like dragons.” Another possible model is “Armies are coming out of Arabia with many chariots [or, horse-drawn carts].” For chariots see the comments on 1 Esd 1.28.

And from the day that they set out, their hissing shall spread over the earth, so that all who hear them fear and tremble: Their hissing refers to the hissing sound that the dragons make. For the writer the earth may represent the country of Syria, but this local conflict in the book takes on much larger dimensions.

Here are two possible models for this verse:

• Armies are coming out of Arabia with many chariots. They come like hissing dragons, and ever since they set out, people all over the earth have heard the sound, and it has made them shake with fear.

• The fierce Arab armies will come riding many chariots, charging and hissing like dragons, and their sound will make everyone over the whole world tremble with fear.

Quoted with permission from Bullard, Roger A. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on 1-2 Esdras. (UBS Helps for Translators). Miami: UBS, 2019. For this and other handbooks for translators see here.