Moreover this head gained control of the whole earth may be rendered “This [largest] head then gained control over the whole world.”

And with much oppression dominated its inhabitants may be translated “and was cruel to people everywhere.” Vespasian put down opposition to Roman power on all the borders of the empire, and a century-long period of relative peace began.

And it had greater power over the world than all the wings that had gone before may be expressed “It had much more power than any of the wings had ever had” (similarly Contemporary English Version).

We suggest the following model for this verse:

• This head then gained control over the whole world. It ruled with great cruelty over people everywhere. It had greater power over the world than all the wings that had ruled before it.

Quoted with permission from Bullard, Roger A. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on 1-2 Esdras. (UBS Helps for Translators). Miami: UBS, 2019. For this and other handbooks for translators see here.