formal 2nd person pronoun (Spanish)

Like many languages (but unlike Greek or Hebrew or English), Spanish uses a formal vs. informal second-person pronoun (a familiar vs. a respectful “you”). Spanish Bibles all use only the informal second-person pronoun (), with the exception of Dios Habla Hoy (third edition: 1996) which also uses the formal pronoun (usted). In the referenced verses, the formal form is used.

Sources and for more information: P. Ellingworth in The Bible Translator 2002, p. 143ff. and R. Ross in The Bible Translator 1993, p. 217ff. .

See also the use of the formal vs. the informal pronoun in the Gospels in Tuvan and 2nd person pronoun with high register.

Lord

The Hebrew adonai in the Old Testament typically refers to God. The shorter adon (and in two cases in the book of Daniel the Aramaic mare [מָרֵא]) is also used to refer to God but more often for concepts like “master,” “owner,” etc. In English Bible translations all of those are translated with “Lord” if they refer to God.

In English Old Testament translations, as in Old Testament translations in many other languages, the use of Lord (or an equivalent term in other languages) is not to be confused with Lord (or the equivalent term with a different typographical display for other languages). While the former translates adonai, adon and mare, the latter is a translation for the tetragrammaton (YHWH) or the Name of God. See tetragrammaton (YHWH) and the article by Andy Warren-Rothlin in Noss / Houser, p. 618ff. for more information.

In the New Testament, the Greek term kurios has at least four different kinds of use:

  • referring to “God,” especially in Old Testament quotations,
  • meaning “master” or “owner,” especially in parables, etc.,
  • as a form of address (see for instance John 4:11: “Sir, you have no bucket”),
  • or, most often, referring to Jesus

In the first and fourth case, it is also translated as “Lord” in English.

Most languages naturally don’t have one word that covers all these meanings. According to Bratcher / Nida, “the alternatives are usually (1) a term which is an honorific title of respect for a high-ranking person and (2) a word meaning ‘boss’, ‘master’, or ‘chief.’ (…) and on the whole it has generally seemed better to employ a word of the second category, in order to emphasize the immediate personal relationship, and then by context to build into the word the prestigeful character, since its very association with Jesus Christ will tend to accomplish this purpose.”

When looking at the following list of back-translations of the terms that translators in the different languages have used for both kurios and adonai to refer to God and Jesus respectively, it might be helpful for English readers to recall the etymology of the English “Lord.” While this term might have gained an exalted meaning in the understanding of many, it actually comes from hlaford or “loaf-ward,” referring to the lord of the castle who was the keeper of the bread (source: Rosin 1956, p. 121).

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Following are some of the solutions that don’t rely on a different typographical display (see above):

  • Navajo: “the one who has charge”
  • Mossi: “the one who has the head” (the leader)
  • Uduk: “chief”
  • Guerrero Amuzgo: “the one who commands”
  • Kpelle: “person-owner” (a term which may be applied to a chief)
  • Central Pame: “the one who owns us” (or “commands us”)
  • Piro: “the big one” (used commonly of one in authority)
  • San Blas Kuna: “the great one over all” (source for this and above: Bratcher / Nida)
  • Guhu-Samane: Soopara (“our Supervisor”) (source: Ellis Deibler in Notes on Translation July, 1967, p. 5ff.)
  • Balinese: “Venerated-one” (source: Reiling / Swellengrebel)
  • Yanesha’: “the one who carries us” (source: Nida 1952, p. 159)
  • Northern Emberá: Dadjirã Boro (“our Head”)
  • Rarotongan: Atu (“master or owner of a property”)
  • Gilbertese: Uea (“a person of high status invested with authority to rule the people”)
  • Rotuman: Gagaja (“village chief”)
  • Samoan: Ali’i (“an important word in the native culture, it derives from the Samoan understanding of lordship based on the local traditions”)
  • Tahitian: Fatu (“owner,” “master”)
  • Tuvalu: Te Aliki (“chief”)
  • Fijian: Liuliu (“leader”) (source for this and six above: Joseph Hong in The Bible Translator 1994, p. 329ff. )
  • Bacama: Həmə miye: “owner of people” (source: David Frank in this blog post )
  • Hopi: “Controller” (source: Walls 2000, p. 139)
  • Iyansi: Mwol. Mwol is traditionally used for the “chief of a group of communities and villages” with legal, temporal, and spiritual authority (versus the “mfum [the term used in other Bantu languages] which is used for the chief of one community of people in one village”). Mwol is also used for twins who are “treated as special children, highly honored, and taken care of like kings and queens.” (Source: Kividi Kikama in Greed / Kruger, p. 396ff.)
  • Ghomala’: Cyəpɔ (“he who is above everyone,” consisting of the verb cyə — to surpass or go beyond — and — referring to people. No human can claim this attribute, no matter what his or her social status or prestige.” (Source: Michel Kenmogne in Theologizing in Context: An Example from the Study of a Ghomala’ Christian Hymn )
  • Binumarien: Karaambaia: “fight-leader” (Source: Oates 1995, p. 255)
  • Warlpiri: Warlaljamarri (owner or possessor of something — for more information tap or click here)

    We have come to rely on another term which emphasizes God’s essential nature as YHWH, namely jukurrarnu (see tetragrammaton (YHWH)). This word is built on the same root jukurr– as is jukurrpa, ‘dreaming.’ Its basic meaning is ‘timelessness’ and it is used to describe physical features of the land which are viewed as always being there. Some speakers view jukurrarnu in terms of ‘history.’ In all Genesis references to YHWH we have used Kaatu Jukurrarnu. In all Mark passages where kurios refers to God and not specifically to Christ we have also used Kaatu Jukurrarnu.

    New Testament references to Christ as kurios are handled differently. At one stage we experimented with the term Watirirririrri which refers to a ceremonial boss of highest rank who has the authority to instigate ceremonies. While adequately conveying the sense of Christ’s authority, there remained potential negative connotations relating to Warlpiri ceremonial life of which we might be unaware.

    Here it is that the Holy Spirit led us to make a chance discovery. Transcribing the personal testimony of the local Warlpiri pastor, I noticed that he described how ‘my Warlaljamarri called and embraced me (to the faith)’. Warlaljamarri is based on the root warlalja which means variously ‘family, possessions, belongingness’. A warlaljamarri is the ‘owner’ or ‘possessor’ of something. While previously being aware of the ‘ownership’ aspect of warlaljamarri, this was the first time I had heard it applied spontaneously and naturally in a fashion which did justice to the entire concept of ‘Lordship’. Thus references to Christ as kurios are now being handled by Warlaljamarri.” (Source: Stephen Swartz, The Bible Translator 1985, p. 415ff. )

  • Mairasi: Onggoao Nem (“Throated One” — “Leader,” “Elder”) or Enggavot Nan (“Above-One”) (source: Enggavoter 2004)
  • Obolo: Okaan̄-ene (“Owner of person(s)”) (source: Enene Enene)
  • Angami Naga: Niepu (“master,” “owner”)
  • Lotha Naga: Opvui (“owner of house / field / cattle”) — since both “Lord” and YHWH are translated as Opvui there is an understanding that “Opvui Jesus is the same as the Opvui of the Old Testament”
  • Ao Naga: Kibuba (“human master,” “teacher,” “owner of property,” etc.) (source for this and two above: Nitoy Achumi in The Bible Translator 1992 p. 438ff. )
  • Seediq: Tholang, loan word from Min Nan Chinese (the majority language in Taiwan) thâu-lâng (頭儂): “Master” (source: Covell 1998, p. 248)
  • Thai: phra’ phu pen cao (พระผู้เป็นเจ้า) (divine person who is lord) or ong(kh) cao nay (องค์เจ้านาย) (<divine classifier>-lord-boss) (source: Stephen Pattemore)
  • Arabic often uses different terms for adonai or kurios referring to God (al-rabb الرب) and kurios referring to Jesus (al-sayyid الـسـيـد). Al-rabb is also the term traditionally used in Arabic Christian-idiom translations for YHWH, and al-sayyid is an honorary term, similar to English “lord” or “sir” (source: Andy Warren-Rothlin).
  • Tamil also uses different terms for adonai/kurios when referring to God and kurios when referring to Jesus. The former is Karttar கர்த்தர், a Sanskrit-derived term with the original meaning of “creator,” and the latter in Āṇṭavar ஆண்டவர், a Tamil term originally meaning “govern” or “reign” (source: Natarajan Subramani).
  • Burunge: Looimoo: “owner who owns everything” (in the Burunge Bible translation, this term is only used as a reference to Jesus and was originally used to refer to the traditional highest deity — source: Michael Endl in Holzhausen / Riderer 2010, p. 48)
  • Aguacateco: Ajcaw ske’j: “the one to whom we belong and who is above us” (source: Rita Peterson in Holzhausen / Riderer 2010, p. 49)
  • Konkomba: Tidindaan: “He who is the owner of the land and reigns over the people” (source: Lidorio 2007, p. 66)
  • Chichewa: Ambuye Ambuye comes from the singular form Mbuye which is used to refer to: (1) someone who is a guardian or protector of someone or group of people — a grandparent who has founded a community or village; (2) someone who is a boss or master over a group of people or servants and has absolute control over them; (3) owner of something, be it a property, animals and people who are bound under his/her rule — for people this was mostly commonly used in the context of slaves and their owner. In short, Mbuye is someone who has some authorities over those who call him/her their “Mbuye.” Now, when the form Ambuye is used it will either be for honorific when used for singular or plural when referring to more than one person. When this term is used in reference to God, it is for respect to God as he is acknowledged as a guardian, protector, and ruler of everything. (Source: Mawu a Mulungu mu Chichewa Chalero Back Translation).
  • Hdi uses rveri (“lion”) as a title of respect and as such it regularly translates adon in the Old Testament. As an address, it’s most often with a possessive pronoun as in rvera ɗa (“my lion” = “my lord” or “sir”). So, for example, Genesis 15:2 (“O Lord God”) is Rvera ɗa Yawe (“My lion Yahweh”) or Ruth to Boaz in Ruth 2:13: “May I find your grace [lit. good-stomach] my lion.” This ties in nicely with the imagery of the Lord roaring like a lion (Hosea 11:10; Amos 3:8; Joel 3:16). Better still, this makes passages like Revelation 5:5 even richer when we read about rveri ma taba məndəra la Yuda, “the Lion of the tribe of Judah”. In Revelation 19:16, Jesus is rveri ta ghəŋa rveriha “the lion above lions” (“lord of lords”). (Source: Drew Maust)

Law (2013, p. 97) writes about how the Ancient Greek Septuagint‘s translation of the Hebrew adonai was used by the New Testament writers as a bridge between the Old and New Testaments: “Another case is the use of kurios referring to Jesus. For Yahweh (in English Bibles: ‘the Lord‘), the Septuagint uses kurios. Although the term kurios usually has to do with one’s authority over others, when the New Testament authors use this word from the Septuagint to refer to Jesus, they are making an extraordinary claim: Jesus of Nazareth is to be identified with Yahweh.”

See also Father / Lord.

Translation commentary on Ruth 2:13: A Cultural Commentary for Central Africa

In Chichewa, Ruth shows enough deference by addressing Boaz as “my lord” (mbuye wanga ‘my master/uncle’), and she does not have to go on to refer to herself as “your maidservant” (which might well be interpreted literally in this context). This also eliminates any possible confusion with her subsequent words: ” . . . though I am not one of your maidservants.”

Source: Wendland 1987, p. 175.

master (Japanese honorifics)

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Like a number of other East Asian languages, Japanese uses a complex system of honorifics, i.e. a system where a number of different levels of politeness are expressed in language via words, word forms or grammatical constructs. These can range from addressing someone or referring to someone with contempt (very informal) to expressing the highest level of reference (as used in addressing or referring to God) or any number of levels in-between.

One way to do this is through the usage of appropriate suffix title referred to as keishō (敬称) as shown here in the widely-used Japanese Shinkaiyaku (新改訳) Bible of 2017 by using the formal title –sama. This is distinct from nominal titles such as “master.” This is evident from the forms such as go-shujin-sama (ご主人様) “master” or “lord” which is the combination of the nominal title shujin “master” with the honorific prefix go- and the suffix title –sama.

In some cases, it can also be used as go-shujin (ご主人), i.e. with the honorific prefix go- but without the suffix title –sama. You can find that in Genesis 23:6, 23:11, 23:15, 24:51, 39:8, 39:9, 44:8, 44:9; 1 Samuel 25:17; and 2 Kings 2:16 and 4:26.

(Source: S. E. Doi, see also S. E. Doi in Journal of Translation, 18/2022, p. 37ff. )

See also lords (Japanese honorifics).

complete verse (Ruth 2:10 - 2:13)

Following are a number of back-translations of Ruth 2:10-2:13:

  • Noongar: “So Ruth fell on her face and said to him, ‘What good did I do that you saw me and are merciful to me? I am a stranger.’ But Boaz replied, ‘Many people have told me everything you have done for your mother-in-law after your husband died. You left your father and mother and your heart land and came here, to a people you don’t know. May God bless you. May the God of Israel give you everything good because you come to shelter under his wings.’ Then Ruth said, ‘My lord, may I always be good in your eyes. I am not your worker, I am not like your young women, but you are good to me and speak gently to me.’” (Source: Bardip Ruth-Ang 2020)
  • Eastern Bru: “After Boaz said this, then Ruth bent down and bowed her knees in front for Boaz. And Ruth said: ‘You don’t have any responsibility toward me, so why should help me like this. I am a person from another country, so why do you still help me very much.’ But Boaz answered her: ‘I have heard already the good things you have done for your mother-in-law from the time that your husband died. And I know that you left your mother and father and the country of your birth. So you came to live with other people, people you did not know. All of these good thing you did, I ask God to give you every blessing. This God is the God of Israel. And you have believed him also. So now it is as though you were under the wing of God.’After that Ruth answered: ‘O sir! Please let me be favored in your sight. You have comforted my heart. And you have spoken well toward me as though I were one of your own servants. Even though I am not one of you servants.’” (Source: Bru Back Translation)
  • Hiligaynon: “Ruth knelt to Boaz as (a) respect and said, ‘Why are you(sg) so very kind to me wherein I am actually/as-a-matter-of-fact just a foreigner?’ Boaz replied, ‘Someone(s) has told me (about) all that you(sg) have-done for your(sg) mother-in-law since the death of your(sg) husband, how you(sg) left your(sg) father and mother and the place where you(sg) were born in-order to live with the people whom you(sg) did- not -know. So may the LORD repay you(sg) for what you(sg) have-done. May you(sg) receive a big reward from the LORD, the God of Israel, whom you(sg) seek-refuge.’ Ruth said, ‘You(sg) are very kind/nice to me, sir, for you(sg) pleased me and have-spoken kindly even-though I am not one of your(sg) servants.’” (Source: Hiligaynon Back Translation)
  • English: “When he said that, she knelt down in front of him in respect, with her face touching the ground. She exclaimed, ‘Why are you acting so kindly toward me, by paying attention to me? I am not even a Jew; I am a foreigner!’ Boaz replied, ‘People have told me all about what you have done for your mother-in-law. They told me that you left your parents and your homeland, and you came here to live among people whom you did not know before. I hope/desire that Yahweh will repay you for what you have done. You have put yourself in the care of Yahweh, like a little bird puts itself under its mother’s wings. I desire that he will reward you very greatly.’ She replied, ‘Sir, I hope you will continue to act kindly toward me. You have comforted/encouraged me, even though I am lower in status than any of your servant girls.’” (Source: Translation for Translators)

favor / please (Japanese honorifics)

Click or tap here to see the rest of this insight.

Like a number of other East Asian languages, Japanese uses a complex system of honorifics, i.e. a system where a number of different levels of politeness are expressed in language via words, word forms or grammatical constructs. These can range from addressing someone or referring to someone with contempt (very informal) to expressing the highest level of reference (as used in addressing or referring to God) or any number of levels in-between.

One way to do this is through the usage (or a lack) of an honorific prefix as shown here in the widely-used Japanese Shinkaiyaku (新改訳) Bible of 2017. When the referent is God, a god, or a person or persons to be greatly honored, the honorific prefix go- (御 or ご) can be used, as in go-kōi (ご好意), a combination of “favor” (kōi) and the honorific prefix go-.

(Source: S. E. Doi, see also S. E. Doi in Journal of Translation, 18/2022, p. 37ff. )

Japanese benefactives (katarikakete)

Click or tap here to see the rest of this insight.

Like a number of other East Asian languages, Japanese uses a complex system of honorifics, i.e. a system where a number of different levels of politeness are expressed in language via words, word forms or grammatical constructs. These can range from addressing someone or referring to someone with contempt (very informal) to expressing the highest level of reference (as used in addressing or referring to God) or any number of levels in-between. One way Japanese shows different degree of politeness is through the choice of a benefactive construction as shown here in the widely-used Japanese Shinkaiyaku (新改訳) Bible of 2017.

Here, katarikakete (語りかけて) or “speak to” is used in combination with kudasaru (くださる), a respectful form of the benefactive kureru (くれる). A benefactive reflects the good will of the giver or the gratitude of a recipient of the favor. To convey this connotation, English translation needs to employ a phrase such as “for me (my sake)” or “for you (your sake).” (Source: S. E. Doi, see also S. E. Doi in Journal of Translation, 18/2022, p. 37ff. )

Translation commentary on Ruth 2:13

Again, the answer which Ruth gives in verse 13 represents a type of poetic structure. The verse consists of three lines with the following meter: 3 + 2, 2 + 2, 3 + 2; and the literal translation of these units may be given as // You are most gracious to me, my lord / for you have comforted me // and spoken kindly to / your maidservant // though I am not / one of your maidservants. // Though it would certainly be interesting to be able to reproduce something of the poetic structure of verse 13, rarely can one do so. Not only is the passage very short, but it does not have the type of content (elaborate figures of speech and condensation of information) which is typical of most poetry.

You are very kind to me may be rendered in some languages as “you are very good to me,” but in Hebrew this is literally “I have found favor in your eyes.” (See comments on verse 10.) Though this Hebrew expression does seem rather elaborate, it is essentially not different in meaning from a modern English expression, “Thank you, sir.” See 1 Samuel 1.18; 16.4; see also Joüon, Commentaire, page 56; so rightly A.B. Ehrlich, Randglossen zur hebräischen Bibel VII, 1914, ad loc.; W. Rudolph and G. Gerleman, op. cit., ad loc.; compare also Baumgartner, s.v. chen: “Ausdruck des Dankes.” The translators of New English Bible apparently felt that Ruth’s expression of thanks is sufficiently expressed in the remaining part of the verse, and therefore they employed for this first expression merely “Indeed, sir.”

Some translators feel that the imperfect tense of the Hebrew verb “to find” must refer to some future event or must express a subjunctive mood, but this seems far from necessary. For the translations, see NAB, BJ, and Dhorme. For the commentaries, see especially those of Haller and Hertzberg. For the instantaneous aspect of the yiqtol form of the verb matsaʾ, see Joüon, par. 113 and 111. The only English translation doing justice to this aspect is the one by Moffatt: “I am finding favour with you, my lord….”

What is rendered as sir in Good News Translation is in Hebrew literally “my lord” or “my master.” It is, however, merely a conventional term of respectful address, and the translator should employ the equivalent form in the receptor language. In some instances this will mean the use of an appropriate honorific or a form of address indicative of the difference in status between Ruth and Boaz. There may be certain complications in languages which employ the same word for “master” or “sir” that they use for “Yahweh.” These complications have been dealt with elsewhere. See also Translator’s Handbook on Luke on 1.6.

The phrase speaking gently represents what is in Hebrew literally “have spoken to the heart of your servant.” In Hebrew the use of the third person, “your servant,” emphasizes the respect which Ruth shows for Boaz. In modern English it is much better to use the first person, by speaking gently to me.

Speaking gently may be rendered in some languages as “speaking kindly to,” “speaking with good words to,” or even, idiomatically, as “speaking with smiling eyes,” or “speaking with a soft face.”

Even though I am not the equal of one of your own servants is literally in Hebrew “though I am not like one of your servants.” This expression makes perfectly good sense, and there seems to be no reason why one should follow some of the ancient versions which employ different textual bases. Septuagint reads: “See, I’ll be as one of your servants,” by deleting the negation marker loʾ. In an effort not to delete a word of the text, it has been proposed several times to change the vocalization into luʾ, a particle with the meaning “if only,” “oh that!” or “would that!” The whole results in a translation such as is found in NAB: “would indeed that I were a servant of yours!” A similar translation has been proposed in a note in NEB (it is impossible to know the source of the translation in the NEB). Haller, op. cit., ad loc., is in favor of this interpretation, whereas more recent commentators are rightly unwilling even to change the vocalization of the Hebrew text. To emphasize that this is an expression of Ruth’s humbleness, Good News Translation translates the equal of.

Quoted with permission from de Waard, Jan and Nida, Eugene A. A Handbook on Ruth. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 1978, 1992. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .