The author describes himself as a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ. In Greek it is possible to take both God and Lord as joint qualifiers of Jesus Christ, literally “servant of God and Lord Jesus Christ,” resulting in the translation “a servant of Jesus Christ, who is God and Lord.” It is doubtful, however, that this is the meaning intended here. The main reason is that it is extremely unusual in the New Testament to call Jesus “God” in such a direct way (John 20.28 is an exception). In order to explain this difficulty and apparent awkwardness, some early manuscripts added the word “Father” after “God” so as to distinguish “God” as “Father” and “Jesus” as “Lord.” Revised Standard Version and Good News Translation both avoid the apparent awkwardness by translating “of God and of the Lord…,” making clear that two persons are involved.

The word servant literally means “slave.” It indicates someone who belongs to a master. It is not a hired servant who is free to change his employer at will, but a slave who is the property of his master, not free to leave his owner. Such a person has no rights of any kind but must show complete obedience and loyalty to his owner. When James applies this term to himself, he obviously means that he is the property of God and of Jesus Christ, and that they have the right to command him and use him. The word, however, does not convey a sense of utter humiliation; it also has a sense of devotion and pride. To have God and Jesus Christ as Master is certainly an honor. In Old Testament times prophets are sometimes called “servants” (compare Jer 7.25; Amos 3.7). The term is also used of great leaders such as Moses (Josh 1.1-7) and David (2 Sam 7.18-29). In cultures where slaves are unknown, possible alternative translations of this first sentence may be the following: “I, James, who serve … with complete obedience and loyalty,” or even “I, James, who am God’s and the Lord Jesus Christ’s man.”

James regards himself as a servant also of the Lord Jesus Christ. This expression embodies the earliest Christian confessions, “Jesus is Christ,” “Jesus is Lord,” and “Jesus Christ is Lord.” The word Christ is the Greek translation of the Hebrew word “Messiah,” which means the “anointed one.” When the early Christians of Jewish background confessed Jesus as the Christ, they expressed their faith in Jesus as God’s anointed representative, equipped with God’s authority. For most of the Gentile Christians, however, “Jesus Christ” probably was no more than a proper noun. For this reason the preferred title applied to Christ was “Lord.” The basic meaning of the word Lord is “owner” or “master,” but in the Bible it has a special meaning. It is one of the most common titles for God in the Old Testament, and in the New Testament it is most frequently applied to Jesus. And as such it is a title of respect and of authority. In the context of this letter it is important to use the same term that is applied to Jesus in the Gospels, whenever he is addressed as “Lord.” In calling Jesus “Lord,” the honor and authority due to God is given also to him. It may be noted, however, that in the Letter of James, the title “Lord” is more frequently applied to God (for example, 1.7; 3.9; 4.10, 15; 5.4, 10, 11).

In some languages translators will need to use a term for Lord in combination with the name Jesus Christ that is merely a dignified title. This should be, however, a title that is normally reserved for deity or for persons of great authority; for example, “Great chief, Jesus Christ,” “Elder Brother, Jesus Christ,” and so on. It should not be the equivalent of “Sir” in English, if the term is merely a polite expression referring to someone of equal standing with the speaker. In some languages translators will need to express the meaning of Lord as, for example, “the one who controls” or “the one who commands”; for example, “Jesus Christ, the One who Controls us,” or “The One who Rules over us, Jesus Christ.”

James addresses his letter To the twelve tribes in the Dispersion. The people of Israel consisted of twelve tribes representing the twelve sons of Jacob. The twelve tribes is normally a comprehensive expression used to describe all the people of Israel, or the whole Jewish nation (compare Acts 26.7). In this letter the phrase obviously refers to Christians, not to Jews. It is possible that the reference is to Jewish Christians, but more likely it is to be taken figuratively as a description of the Christians, the new people of God who constitute the new Israel (compare Gal 6.16; also Matt 19.28). It is for this reason that Good News Translation renders the expression as “all God’s people,” and in many languages this will be a suitable translation. However, if a translator wishes to retain the expression twelve tribes, it will be helpful to include a footnote explaining the term. The footnote in Contemporary English Version reads: “twelve tribes scattered all over the world: James is saying that the Lord’s followers are like the tribes of Israel that were scattered everywhere by their enemies.”

The word Dispersion is sometimes used as a technical term for Jews living outside their historic homeland. Here, as in the understanding of the phrase “twelve tribes,” the reference is most probably not to the Jews living in other countries. It is possible that it refers to Jewish Christians living beyond their home country, mainly in Syria and Asia Minor. The most widely accepted understanding, however, is to take the term metaphorically as referring to Christians who are “strangers and exiles on the earth” (compare Heb 11.13; 13.14; 1 Peter 1.1, 17; 2.11), namely Christians “scattered over the whole world” (Good News Translation), or “dispersed throughout the world” (New English Bible and Revised English Bible [New English Bible/Revised English Bible]). Some languages will not be able to use the passive expression “dispersed.” In such cases we may say, for example, “to all God’s people [or, Christians] who are living as strangers in various places all over the world.” Just as it was possible to describe the Christian Church in terms of the “twelve tribes,” so it was possible to think of its widely scattered members in terms of a “new Dispersion.” It may be mentioned that scholars engaged in social analysis of New Testament texts have recently proposed the view that the term Dispersion should be understood not only as a religious designation, but also as a social designation, referring to the poor Christians who were prevented by their neighbors from taking part in community affairs because of their faith. This interpretation, while not impossible, may not be the central meaning intended here.

Greeting translates the infinitive form of a verb that also means “rejoice” or “be glad.” This word is also used as a formula of greeting when meeting people (compare Mark 15.18; Luke 1.28; John 19.3) and at the beginning of a letter (compare Acts 15.23; 23.26). Unlike Paul in his letters, James does not attempt to expand his greetings into a distinctive Christian salutation. Since this is a conventional greeting formula, it is all right to use an equivalent formula in translation. For example, the Japanese New Interconfessional Translation in its first edition published in 1978 has “How are you?” However, the use of the simple greeting may be intentional. It serves to link verse 2 to verse 1, as there is a similarity in sound between chairein (“rejoice,” or “greeting”) and charan (“joy”). If so, in languages where the standard greeting is, for example, “cheers” or “be happy,” it may be desirable to use such a formula.

An alternative translation model for this verse may be as follows:
• I, James, who serve God and the Lord Jesus Christ, write this letter to all the Christians who live all over the world. Greetings!

Quoted with permission from Loh, I-Jin and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on The Letter from James. (UBS Handbook Series). New York: UBS, 1997. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .

Three things can be said about the expression my brethren:
(1) This expression is used fourteen times in the letter and often signifies a transition to a new subject matter (for example, 1.16, 19; 2.1, 5, 14; 3.1; 4.11; 5.7, 12, 19).
(2) This affectionate address sets a pastoral tone for various exhortations of the letter. The Jewish people in the Old Testament used the word brethren to describe not only members of their own family but also their fellow Israelites. In New Testament times it is often used to refer to fellow Christians in the community. They are fellow members of the family that acknowledges God as the Father. Clearly, when James addresses his readers as my brethren, his feeling toward them is that of warmth and love.
(3) The use of the plural form brethren is general; it does not mean to exclude “sisters” who are also of the Christian community. It is therefore possible, indeed desirable, to render it as “my brothers and sisters,” as the New Revised Standard Version (New Revised Standard Version) has done.

In certain languages a literal translation of the term brethren will refer to actual siblings. In this case translators will need to avoid such terms and simply render it as “my friends,” as in the case of Revised English Bible and Good News Translation; or we may say “my fellow believers [or, Christians],” or even idiomatically “my elders and youngers.”

The word joy in Count it all joy is related in meaning to the word rendered “Greeting” in verse 1. The similarity in sound between the two words in Greek seems to suggest that a play on words is intended. The meaning of Count is “to reckon as,” “to deem as,” or “to regard as.” Most modern translations render it as “consider” (so Good News Translation, New International Version [New International Version], New Jerusalem Bible [New Jerusalem Bible], New Revised Standard Version). The force of the word all modifying joy is sometimes understood in terms of completeness, meaning that the joy should be pure and unmixed; for example, “nothing but joy” (Barclay’s translation [Barclay], New Revised Standard Version), “pure joy” (Moffat [Moffatt], New International Version). Others take it to mean the intensity and quality of joy; for example, “greatest joy” (Goodspeed’s American Translation [Goodspeed]), “great joy” (New Jerusalem Bible), “supremely happy” (New English Bible/Revised English Bible).

A literal translation of the clause Count it all joy presents difficulties for translators in many languages. In such languages a more natural translation will be “You should rejoice greatly when…,” or more idiomatically “Your hearts [or, stomachs] should feel very warm when…,” “Your hearts should dance when…,” or “Your innermost being should ring when….” In languages where it will be unnatural to talk about being “joyful” when encountering trials, it will be helpful to translate in a similar way to Good News Translation, “consider yourselves fortunate,” and say “You must understand that it is beneficial for you when…,” “… it is a great advantage for you when…,” or even “You must feel great satisfaction when….”

It is significant that the readers are commanded to have a sense of happiness and joy, or even “satisfaction,” in the face of trials. Trials are something that Christians meet or “face” (New English Bible, New International Version, New Revised Standard Version), things that “come your way” (Good News Translation) or “come upon you” (so the King James Version [King James Version]), referring basically to inward impulses and experiences that may entice a person to sin. This is obviously the sense intended in verse 13. The word, however, also means “testing,” referring to outward troubles and difficulties. The corresponding verb is used of a young bird “testing” its wings, of “testing” drugs to see if they could cure diseases, of God “testing” Abraham to offer his son as sacrifice (Gen 22.1), of the Queen of Sheba “testing” the wisdom of Solomon (1 Kgs 10.1), and so on. In biblical usage the “testing” often leads to a good end. It is to cause the person being tested to emerge stronger and better, in loyalty and in faith. Most probably the second meaning, namely outward troubles, is the intended sense in the present context. While not ruling out the possibility of sufferings and persecution, the context appears to indicate that the word trials here probably means nothing more than daily troubles of some sort. So this final sentence may also be expressed as “When you pass through [or, endure] all kinds of troubles [or, difficulties].”

Quoted with permission from Loh, I-Jin and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on The Letter from James. (UBS Handbook Series). New York: UBS, 1997. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .

The reason why Christians are told to consider “trials” as an occasion for happiness is that they may become the means through which better Christian qualities may develop.

For you know that the testing of your faith produces steadfastness is a participial phrase in Greek. The participle “knowing” has a causal force, giving the reason for “joy,” and so most modern translations have brought this out. “Knowing” in biblical usage is more than mere intellectual perception; it is something that is gained through daily experience in life; and so it may be translated as “for you have found out that…” or “for you have ascertained that….”

There are several problems in the phrase the testing of your faith. The first is the meaning of testing. The Greek word for testing here is different from the word discussed above in verse 2. The word here is sometimes used for “testing” the purity or genuineness of gold or silver. It appears elsewhere in the New Testament only in 1 Peter 1.6-7, where Peter speaks about “various trials” (verse 6) to prove “the genuineness of faith” (verse 7). In 1 Peter the focus seems to be on the result of testing, namely “the proven genuineness or test-worthiness of faith.” Some interpreters are of the opinion that the same focus is in view in the present context and have rendered it accordingly; for example, “your faith is proved” (Translator’s New Testament [Translator’s New Testament]—as reflected also in its translational notes on this verse). However, most translations take the word in the sense of the means of testing, namely “various trials” by which faith is tested. It is probably for this reason that Good News Translation renders the word also as “trials,” even though in Greek it is different from the one used in verse 2.

The second problem has to do with the rather abstract and ambiguous construction the testing of your faith. Obviously we have here a case of objective genitive; “faith” is the object “tested.” We can therefore restructure the phrase as “when your faith succeeds in facing such trials” (Good News Translation), or “when faith has passed through the ordeal of testing” (Barclay). Note that the word faith here, as in verse 6, does not mean acceptance of or giving intellectual assent to the teachings of the church. Rather, in agreement with the predominant meaning used elsewhere in the New Testament, it means a confident trust in Jesus Christ. So this clause may also be translated as “when you have passed through such trials [or, difficulties] and you still believe [in Jesus] as strongly as before.”

The word produces has the meaning of “brings about,” “works,” “achieves,” “develops.” It indicates that the “faith” that can withstand “trials” is bound to “produce” some positive result, namely the ability to endure. Steadfastness is the intended result of this “testing” process. In Greek the word steadfastness, rendered “endurance” by King James Version and “the ability to endure” by Good News Translation, does not mean a passive submission to circumstances as the English word “endurance” tends to suggest. It is rather an active quality that enables a person to persevere steadfastly through the most difficult and trying circumstances. This is the same word used in 5.11 to describe Job’s steadfastness in spite of most distressing disasters. In Rom 5.4 Paul identifies “endurance” as the heroic quality that “produces character” (RSV). In certain languages this will be expressed idiomatically; for example, “have a heart [or, liver] that endures,” or even “have a big heart.” This quality of “steadfastness,” “fortitude” (New English Bible), and “perseverance” (New International Version) is the direct result of the ability of faith withstanding testing and “trials.” For this reason produces steadfastness is rendered as “the result is the ability to endure” (Good News Translation), or more graphically as “the result is the ability to pass the breaking-point and not to break” (Barclay). It may also be rendered “going all the way without falling [or, giving in].”

An alternative translation model for this verse may be:
• For when you have found out [or, experienced] that you have passed through such trials [or, difficulties] and you still believe in Jesus as strongly as before, the result will be that you will be able to continue on without falling [or, giving in].

Quoted with permission from Loh, I-Jin and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on The Letter from James. (UBS Handbook Series). New York: UBS, 1997. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .

Notice a progressive heightening of thoughts through verses 2-4: “faith” in withstanding the “test” produces “steadfastness,” which in turn makes the higher goals of “perfection” and “completeness” possible.

Verse 4 consists of two clauses in Greek; the first is an imperative, and the second a final purpose clause that is grammatically dependent on the imperative clause, but in thought parallel to it. The meaning of the phrase full effect can be understood as letting “endurance” develop fully and completely until it produces “full and perfect steadfastness.” It is best, however, to take it in the sense of letting steadfastness lead on to its “proper and full effect.” This is the sense favored by most modern translations; for example, “steadfastness must have full play” (Goodspeed), “until that endurance is fully developed” (Phillips [Phillips]), “this ability must go right on to the end” (Barclay), “perseverance must complete its work” (New Jerusalem Bible). In English let … have does not convey the imperative force that is in the Greek original. The New English Bible rendering that is cast in the conditional mood (“and if you give fortitude full play”) has certainly missed the force. And so most translators prefer to use the word “must.” The Good News Translation restructuring brings out the force most effectively, “Make sure that your endurance carries you all the way,” adding “without failing.” Other alternative translation models may be “Make sure that your ability to endure does not stop [or, does not become weak],” “Make sure that your heart [or, liver] endures without ever giving up,” or “Make sure that your heart endures and gets as strong as possible.” We may also follow the Contemporary English Version rendering, “But you must learn to endure everything.”

The purpose of letting the quality of steadfastness have its full effect is to grow and produce higher qualities, that you may be perfect and complete. The Greek word for perfect is a favorite term in this letter. It appears again in 1.17, 25; 2.22 (“completed”); and 3.2. The word generally means “that which is perfect” when referring to things, or “full-grown” or “mature” when used of persons. It can also mean “perfect,” or “fully developed,” or “complete goodness” in the moral sense. It always points to an end or goal. In the New Testament it often means a maturity of character that God wants Christians to attain (compare 1 Cor 2.6; Eph 4.13; Phil 3.15). The word complete means literally “whole in all its parts.” It occurs elsewhere in the New Testament only in 1 Thes 5.23, where RSV renders it “kept sound,” and Good News Translation “whole being.” Since the word is often used in pairing with the word perfect, it naturally acquires a moral or ethical sense of “blameless.” It is clear from the context that both terms are related to moral integrity (for example, “men of mature character, men of integrity” (Phillips). The focus of perfect may be on attaining maturity of character, while the focus of complete is on being free from defect. It is, however, unnecessary to separate the significance of the two words. Some translations have therefore understood this “and” construction as referring to a single idea of perfection; for example, “go on to complete a balanced character” (New English Bible), “so that you may be fully mature” (New American Bible [New American Bible] 1970), and “so that you may be completely mature” (Contemporary English Version). In many languages this will be the more natural way to render these two terms; for example, “that you may be good in every way,” or “that you may become a completely good person.”

The phrase lacking in nothing is best taken as an added explanation of the quality just mentioned, not as another quality to be attained. The word lacking is used of the defeat of an army, giving up without a struggle. It means falling short of a standard. Taken with the previous expression it can be rendered in various ways; for example, “… men of integrity with no weak spots” (Phillips), “… a balanced character that will fall short of nothing” (New English Bible), “… complete, and not fail in any way” (Translator’s New Testament), “… complete, not deficient in any way” (New Jerusalem Bible).

An alternative translation model for this verse may be:
• Make sure that your ability to endure grows as strong as possible, so that you may become a completely good person with no defects at all.

Quoted with permission from Loh, I-Jin and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on The Letter from James. (UBS Handbook Series). New York: UBS, 1997. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .

Starting at verse 5 we enter a subsection on the wisdom that is obtainable only through prayer in faith. A structural link with the previous verse is made by using a pair of catchwords, “lacking” in verse 4 and “lacks” in verse 5.

In Greek there is a particle that functions either as a connective “And” or as an adversative “But,” depending on context. Good News Translation chooses to render it as an adversative “But,” thus connecting this verse with what is said in the previous verse (so also the French common language version [Bible en français courant]). Most other translations, however, take it simply as a transition marker and therefore leave it untranslated; this appears to be the more likely interpretation.

For translating this verse the relative clause who gives to all men … presents some problems. The question is where to place this explanatory relative clause. It may be treated as a parenthetical statement; for example, “and if, in the process, any of you does not know how to meet any particular problem he has only to ask God—who gives generously to all men without making them feel guilty—and he may be quite sure that the necessary wisdom will be given him” (Phillips). This is essentially what is done by translations that follow more or less the structure of the Greek original, such as King James Version, Revised Standard Version, New Revised Standard Version. It is also possible to make the relative clause a separate statement, as a sort of an introduction to the other three clauses in the sentence: for example, “It is characteristic of God to give generously and ungrudgingly to all. So then, if anyone is lacking in wisdom…” (Barclay). A third possibility, the one that appears to be the most acceptable, is to link the relative clause to the other three with an explanatory particle “for” or “because,” as Good News Translation has done: “But if any of you lack wisdom, you should pray to God, who will give it to you; because God gives generously and graciously to all.”

The word wisdom is one of the important terms in this letter. It occurs again in 3.13, 15, and 17. The Greek concept of wisdom centers around “knowledge,” “cleverness,” and “learnedness.” In biblical usage, however, especially in the Old Testament, it is basically a practical, moral, and spiritual insight given by God (1 Kgs 3.7-9; Pro 2.3-6, 10-19; 9.1-6). It is the ability to discern right from wrong and good from evil. It is the power that enables a person to do and say the right thing at the right time. The practical nature of wisdom in the present context is brought out vividly by Phillips when he renders the conditional clause as “and if, in the process, any of you does not know how to meet any particular problem…” (similarly the German common language version [Die Bibel im heutigen Deutsch]). We may also say “But if any of you do not know how to deal with these problems [or, difficulties]” or “But if any of you do not have the insight to solve these problems.”

According to James wisdom is a gift from God, something God gives, and therefore a person must ask for it and it will be given to him. This saying is reminiscent of Jesus’ teaching in Matt 7.11. “God’s readiness to give is a motive to prayer” Ropes). The imperative let him ask is best rendered as “he should ask” (New American Bible, New English Bible, Revised English Bible), or “you should pray” (Good News Translation), or generally “ask God” (New Revised Standard Version), or “you should ask God” (Contemporary English Version). Notice that God gives to all men. It is best to render all men inclusively; for example, “all” (Good News Translation, New American Bible, New Jerusalem Bible, New Revised Standard Version), or even “all people.” Here James is speaking of the gift of wisdom given in response to prayer, and so all refers most likely to “all who ask from God,” rather than the all-inclusive “everyone” (Translator’s New Testament).

The adverb rendered generously is found only here in the New Testament. It means literally “simply” or “single-heartedly,” that is, “without hesitation,” “without condition,” or “without reservation.” This is obviously the meaning taken by Moffatt when he renders it as “without question” (similarly Traduction œcuménique de la Bible). However, considering the fact that this adverb is used in connection with “giving,” most modern translations favor the rendering generously (similarly Goodspeed, Phillips, New American Bible, Revised English Bible). The focus here appears to be on the extent of giving, but it may be noted that generosity in some languages also refers to the manner of giving. In certain languages it will be rendered in an idiomatic way; for example, “give with a wide heart.”

Without reproaching can be taken in the sense of “without making them feel guilty” (Phillips) or “without scolding” (New Jerusalem Bible); or it can be understood in the sense of “ungrudgingly” (Knox, New American Bible, Translator’s New Testament, Barclay, New Revised Standard Version). The former goes better with “without condition” or “without question,” while the latter pairs better with “generously.” The Good News Translation rendering “graciously,” expressed positively, is more general than other translations. “Graciously” may also be rendered as “in a kind way,” or “in a way that shows his love and care.”

An alternative translation model for this verse may be:
• If any of you need wisdom, you should ask God and he will give it to you. God is generous and will give wisdom to all who ask him, in a way that shows his love and care.

Quoted with permission from Loh, I-Jin and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on The Letter from James. (UBS Handbook Series). New York: UBS, 1997. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .

Prayer for wisdom must be a prayer made with faith. James now turns from the nature of God’s giving to the nature of a person’s asking. He signals the shift by using an adversative But.

The imperative force of let him ask is best rendered here as “he must ask” (so New English Bible/Revised English Bible, Translator’s New Testament). Faith in this context is again a basic religious attitude; it is a matter of trusting in God and relying on his promises. It is not simply a general belief in the proposition that prayer will be answered. It is a confidence in God as one who gives generously. Since faith is an action or event word, it is often best rendered as a verb. In this case it may be desirable to shift the imperative force to the word “believe,” thus “when he asks, he must believe…” (New International Version), “… he must believe [or, have confidence in] God,” or “when you pray, you must believe God.” Faith or “believe” will be expressed idiomatically in many languages that use terms for speaking about “emotional centers” such as the heart, the liver, and so on. This is essentially because faith involves an intensive psychological experience. Here are some examples: “place heart in” (Thai), or “lean heart on.” A Handbook on the Gospel of Mark (pages 38-39) provides many other illustrations; for example, “to arrive on the inside” (Trique), “to join the word to the body” (Uduk), “to make the mind big for something” (Putu), “to hear and take into the insides” (Karré), and so on.

With no doubting is a negative way of saying in faith or “believe.” The verb “to doubt” basically means “to differentiate,” “to be divided against yourself,” and “to waver between two alternatives.” This means that the person who doubts is torn between his allegiance to God and his distrust of God. The two clauses may be rendered as “But when you pray, you must have confidence in God. You must not doubt at all.”

The author continues with an explanatory particle meaning for or “because” (New International Version, New Jerusalem Bible). He explains that the doubter is like a wave of the sea that is driven and tossed by the wind. The Greek word translated here as wave occurs elsewhere in the New Testament only in Luke 8.24. It is a word for dashing or surging waves of the sea. The focus seems to be on the size rather than the movement of the wave. The metaphor of the sea is emphasized by means of two participles with identical endings and similar meaning, literally “being wind-driven and fanned.” The two words convey essentially the same idea, and so they are sometimes rendered as one motion; for example, “like a heaving sea ruffled by the wind” (Revised English Bible) or “like the waves thrown up in the sea by the buffeting of the wind” (New Jerusalem Bible). Other possible ways of rendering this are “like waves that the wind tosses around” or “like large waves that the wind drives along.” In some languages, especially those spoken on small islands in the Pacific Ocean, the expression wave of the sea will be redundant. It will be understood that “waves” are always present in large bodies of water such as “seas,” “oceans,” or “lakes,” unless indicated otherwise in the context. It may be noted that this metaphor of a rough sea may convey feelings of joy and excitement to some sea-loving people, but to the Hebrew people it is symbolic of evil and uncertainty. The point that James tries to convey is that the doubter is uncertain and unstable.

An alternative translation model for this verse may be:
• But when you pray to God, you must believe [or, have confidence in] him, and not doubt at all. For the person who doubts is like a large wave that the wind tosses about.

Quoted with permission from Loh, I-Jin and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on The Letter from James. (UBS Handbook Series). New York: UBS, 1997. For this and other handbooks for translators see here .