Translation introduction to Judith (United Bible Societies)

Translating Judith

Judith tells the story of a brave Israelite woman determined to remain faithful to her religion while saving her hometown from an invasion.
Cast of characters in the book of Judith

The following list of characters is the order in which they occur in the book of Judith.

Nebuchadnezzar — King of Assyria.
Arphaxad — King of the Medes, defeated by Nebuchadnezzar.
Holofernes — Assyrian general who lays siege to the Israelite city of Bethulia. The villain of the story.
Joakim — Israelite high priest in Jerusalem.
Achior — Ammonite military leader who cautions Holofernes about the Israelites. Holofernes sends him off to Bethulia, where Holofernes’ soldiers tie him up and leave him. When Holfernes is killed, Achior becomes a believer in the God of Israel.
Uzziah — A leader of the Israelite city of Bethulia, and spokesman for the other leaders.
Chabris and Charmis — Two elders of Bethulia.
Judith — Heroine of the story, a beautiful Israelite widow.
Judith’s maid — An unnamed woman who accompanies Judith on her adventures.
Bagoas — Eunuch serving as personal attendant to Holofernes.

Some characteristics of the book of Judith

Judith is a well-crafted narrative telling how a faithful Israelite woman single-handedly defeats the Assyrian army threatening her hometown of Bethulia. Judith is not introduced until chapter 8. The first seven chapters are a slow buildup to her appearing on the scene, at which time the action speeds up and the narrative gains interest.

The book seems to reinvent history. Nebuchadnezzar appears here as King of Assyria, while the man known to history was King of Babylonia a century later. His opponent, Arphaxad of Media, is unknown. The book speaks of the Jewish people having returned from exile (4.3), yet the Assyrians, and Babylonians as well, were threats to the Israelite population before the exile. The geography of the book is just as odd. Holofernes’ army takes only three days to march 300 miles to southeastern Asia Minor, and then he fights in areas associated with North Africa. After this he attacks Mesopotamia, and the next thing we know he is in Palestine (2.21-28).

The historical and geographical errors in the book are so obvious that scholars today believe they are deliberate. They are a device of the author to direct the reader’s attention away from past history and to the story itself. The town of Bethulia, center of the action, is completely unknown. All of this suggests that the characters and events in the book are symbolic. Judith’s symbolism is obvious. The name Judith is simply the feminine form of the word “Jew,” and it is clear that she represents the faith and resources of the Jewish people. The military threat to Bethulia probably represents any kind of threat to Jerusalem and to Jewish integrity. People who faithfully follow the Law of God can oppose such a threat. Bethulia probably is derived from Bethel, which means “house of God,” so it is an imaginary representation of Jerusalem or Judea.

Judith is by far the most developed character in the story. She is beautiful, she is cunning, she is resourceful, she is brave. She is faithful to God, to Jewish tradition, and to the memory of her husband. She is also deceptive and willing to use her sexuality as a weapon against her enemy. She is as profound a thinker as the wise men of Israel (8.11-23). She can pray like a prophet (chapter 9), sing like a psalmist (chapter 16) and act with the bloody violence of one of the judges (13.4-9). Her fidelity and valor put to shame the men who rule in Bethulia.

Holofernes, with his boastfulness, exemplifies how those who dare oppose God’s purposes are reduced to fools. Claiming to act for his god Nebuchadnezzar, he reduces most of the world known at the time to ruins. Finally he prepares for a climactic assault on Bethulia to destroy all the Jewish people. But he meets a bloody end at the hands of a single Israelite woman.

Binding the two parts of the book (chapters 1–7 without Judith and chapters 8–16 with her) is the character of Achior, the Ammonite leader who functions much like Balaam does in the book of Numbers. A non-Israelite, he respects Israel and warns Holofernes against ill-advised action. Holofernes turns him over to the Israelites so he can meet his doom along with them, but after Judith’s conquest he appears again as a witness to Israel and Israel’s God, even joining the community of Israel as one of them.

The circumstances of the writing of Judith

The author is unknown. Various dates have been suggested for the writing of the book, but opinion today is heavily in favor of a date in the first century B.C. In 9.8 Judith’s words seem to reflect the experience of the Jews with Antiochus Epiphanes in the second century. Customs referred to in 8.6 and 11.13 seem to suggest an even later origin in the first century B.C., when the tradition of the Pharisees was widely known. The political organization of Israel in Judith, involving a high priest working alongside a senate, also seems to speak for a date as late as the first century B.C. Judith is referred to by the Christian writer Clement of Rome about A.D. 90. Since Clement knows the book in its Greek translation, we must allow time after writing for the book to become known, be translated, and be circulated in translation. The first century B.C. is consistent with these observations. There is general agreement that the book was originally written in Hebrew, though some would argue for Aramaic. Hebrew idioms are often easily discerned behind the Greek translation. Most scholars would venture that Judith was written in Palestine, although there is not a great deal of evidence to help solve this question.

The Greek text of Judith is in good shape, with relatively few difficult textual problems.

Outline of contents

Introduction: Nebuchadnezzar (1.1-16)
Part I: Holofernes (2.1–7.32)
Nebuchadnezzar’s orders to Holofernes (2.1-13)
Holofernes carries out Nebuchadnezzar’s orders (2.14–3.10)
Israel prepares for war (4.1-15)
Holofernes’ questions (5.1-4)
Achior’s answer (5.5-21)
The war council’s response (5.22-24)
Holofernes’ response to Achior (6.1-9)
The Assyrians expel Achior (6.10-13)
Achior in Bethulia (6.14-21)
Holofernes lays siege to Bethulia (7.1-18)
Conditions in Bethulia (7.19-32)
Part II: Judith (8.1–16.25)
Judith introduced (8.1-8)
Judith confronts the elders of Bethulia (8.9-36)
Judith’s prayer (9.1-14)
Judith carries out her plans (10.1-23)
Holofernes welcomes Judith (11.1-4)
Judith explains her plans to Holofernes (11.5-19)
Holofernes praises Judith (11.20-23)
Judith carries out her plans (12.1-9)
Judith kills Holofernes (12.10–13.10a)
Judith welcomed back to Bethulia (13.10b-20)
Judith’s plan (14.1-5)
Achior’s conversion (14.6-10)
Judith’s plan is carried out (14.11–15.7)
Judith is celebrated as a heroine (15.8-13)
Judith’s song of praise (16.1-17)
Judith’s later life (16.18-25)

Quoted with permission from Bullard, Roger A. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on Judith. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2001. For this and other handbooks for translators see here.

Translation commentary on Judith 2:20

Along with them went a mixed crowd: A mixed crowd of people accompanies the army as it begins its march. Good News Translation describes these as “other troops,” but it is not clear that this is intended. These are probably camp followers—merchants, scavengers, swindlers, prostitutes, anyone seeking profit from the anticipated carnage and destruction. A mixed crowd may therefore be alternatively translated “a huge crowd of other people.”

Like a swarm of locusts, like the dust of the earth: This crowd of people was also countless, like swarming insects. Locusts are the migratory type of winged, hopping insects that swarm in the air. They are enormously destructive to plant life. In cultures where locusts are unknown, one could say “like a swarm of winged insects.” The stress here is on the great number of insects rather than the actual variety. These people were also described as the dust of the earth. The Greek text is literally “sand,” not dust. Good News Translation has “like grains of sand in the desert,” while Contemporary English Version has “like grains of sand on the seashore.” However, in cultures where sand is non-existent, dust may be used.

A multitude that could not be counted: Good News Translation provides a good model here with “There were so many that it was impossible to count them.”

Quoted with permission from Bullard, Roger A. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on Judith. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2001. For this and other handbooks for translators see here.

Translation commentary on Judith 5:2

He was very angry: The author speaks strongly here about the anger of Holofernes. “Boiled over with anger” in Good News Translation captures the mood well, but the translator of course must realize that this is an English metaphor. Translators should try to find suitable metaphors in their language; for example, “his nose got very hot” or “his liver seethed with anger.”

So he called together: Holofernes is apparently still at his camp between Geba and Scythopolis (see 3.10). His calling the commanders together is the result of what he had heard. Some translators will find it natural to use a connector like So here.

All the princes of Moab and the commanders of Ammon and all the governors of the coastland: Good News Translation has “rulers … generals … governors,” and Contemporary English Version “leaders … army commanders … rulers.” The author does not use technical terms, each one chosen to go with a particular area. These are general terms, chosen to vary the vocabulary and impress the reader with Holofernes’ diplomatic resources. Translators should try to use three different terms if possible. The term commanders used with Ammon does indicate a high military office, but this is incidental. Moab was directly east of the Dead Sea. Ammon was north of Moab. Any representatives of the coastland would have been in the old Philistine country along the Mediterranean coast. Holofernes is camped in the north, at the Jezreel Valley (see 3.9-10). He calls on these people not because they are nearby, but because they have had long historical experience with the Israelites. Good News Translation‘s “You live in Canaan, so tell me…” in the next verse neatly establishes this for the reader.

Quoted with permission from Bullard, Roger A. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on Judith. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2001. For this and other handbooks for translators see here.

Translation commentary on Judith 6:12

When the men of the city saw them, they caught up their weapons and ran out of the city to the top of the hill: Revised Standard Version notes a textual problem here. Some authorities add “on the top of the hill” to the first clause. If this is done, the phrase top of the hill appears twice in this verse, and most scholars think that one of the occurrences is a mistaken scribal repetition. The textual problem is compounded by grammatical ambiguity. What does the phrase top of the hill modify? The first occurrence of the phrase can be understood three ways:

(1) When the men of the town who were on top of the hill saw them….
(2) When the men of the town, which was on top of the hill, saw them….
(3) When the men of the town saw them on top of the hill….

The second understanding is the most natural way to understand both the Greek and the geography. The third one is the least likely possibility, in spite of the Revised Standard Version note. The Assyrian soldiers are coming up from the plain.

The second occurrence of top of the hill can be understood two ways:

(1) They ran outside the town to the top of the hill….
(2) They ran outside the town, which was on top of the hill….

The second understanding is most likely with the town on top of the hill. The first one seems to have the defenders putting the town between them and the approaching Assyrian soldiers.

The textual question is whether one of these two phrases is a mistaken addition to the text, and if so, which one. It is important to note that in both cases the phrase top of the hill follows immediately after the phrase the city, in the same grammatical form and spelling. It would have been quite easy for a scribe to repeat the phrase at the second occurrence by moving his eyes to the first the city and writing the descriptive phrase a second time. One also could easily reason, as some do, that the first occurrence of the phrase is the mistaken addition. On the other hand, it could have been a conscious repetition, so it is original. Traduction œcuménique de la Bible is alone in going this way.

Translators will be in good scholarly company, whatever choice they make. However, the following solution, which is suggested by Gonzáles and Alonso-Schöckel, appears to be defensible and simple:

• When the men of Bethulia saw them coming, they grabbed their weapons and ran out of the town, which was on top of the hill.

This satisfies the Greek since top of the hill most likely modifies city. It also fits the geography since the city was surely on top of the hill, not halfway up. Finally it supports the tactics. The defenders can repel the Assyrians and have the safety of their city at their back. This translation avoids repetition by naming Bethulia at the first occurrence of the city. Translators are urged to follow this solution.

All the slingers kept them from coming up by casting stones at them: Slingers were men who used stones as weapons. By whirling the sling with the stone about his head several times, and then letting go one end of the sling, the stone was propelled forward with great force.

Good News Translation builds this explanation into the text unnoticed, although “rained” presents a problem with “Every man” as subject of the verb. The whole mass of slingers could “rain” stones on the enemy, but a single man could hardly do it. The form of the verb “cast/throw” used here does suggest a “rain” of stones, however. But in some languages it will be unnatural to talk about “raining stones on.” In such cases Contemporary English Version‘s translation will be helpful: “They were able to stop the Assyrians from getting any closer by using slings to throw stones at them.” We may reorder the clauses and say, for example, “Some of the men used slings to throw stones at the Assyrians. This stopped them from coming up any closer.”

The Greek does not specify those being stopped by the slingers; it simply says them, but translators may feel the need for a noun here. It must be well chosen, however. It should be consistent with the noun used in 6.7, 10-11 (whether Holofernes’ servants, slaves, or soldiers). When Good News Translation reads “Holofernes’ soldiers” it is being consistent with its rendering “my men” in 6.7 and “men” in verses 10-11. If a translation has opted for “servants” or “slaves” in 6.7, 10-11, it should do the same here.

Quoted with permission from Bullard, Roger A. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on Judith. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2001. For this and other handbooks for translators see here.

Translation commentary on Judith 7:26

Now call them in raises the question of just how they are going to do this. Perhaps simply by shouting. New American Bible‘s “summon” is not well chosen; the Israelites are in no position to be summoning anyone. New English Bible simply omits the word and says simply “Surrender to them.” The translation must make clear that the proposed action is that of an inferior acknowledging submission to a superior force. Moore’s “Contact them at once” fits the context without raising questions about how the contact is to be made. Contemporary English Version is similar with “Tell the Assyrians that you have decided to surrender.”

Surrender the whole city: Good News Translation expresses the idea of surrender twice with “surrender to … let … take the town.” However, one may say “let … take [or, capture] our town.”

To the army of Holofernes and to all his forces: Army and forces refer to the same people and may be combined; for example, “the whole army of Holofernes” or “all his soldiers.”

To be plundered may be rendered “let them forcibly take all our possessions.”

An alternative model for this verse is:

• Call the Assyrians now and let Holofernes and his whole army capture our town and loot it.

Quoted with permission from Bullard, Roger A. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on Judith. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2001. For this and other handbooks for translators see here.

Translation commentary on Judith 8:26

Remember what he did with Abraham, and how he tested Isaac: The Abraham reference is surely to Gen 22. It is less clear what is meant by the testing of Isaac. Perhaps Gen 26 is meant.

What happened to Jacob in Mesopotamia in Syria: See Gen 29.1–31.55. Mesopotamia in Syria (actually “of Syria”) is a strange expression, but is used in the Greek Old Testament, often for Paddan-Aram (Gen 31.18). It is in the plain to the west of Syria but east of the Euphrates River; the region is in southern Turkey today. Good News Translation and Contemporary English Version simplify to “Mesopotamia” since that is where biblical atlases and maps locate the region. “Northern Mesopotamia” would be better.

While he was keeping the sheep of Laban, his mother’s brother: It will be good to identify Laban as Jacob’s uncle; for example, “while he was taking care of his uncle Laban’s sheep” (Contemporary English Version).

Quoted with permission from Bullard, Roger A. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on Judith. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2001. For this and other handbooks for translators see here.

Translation commentary on Judith 10:10

When they had done this is omitted by Good News Translation as redundant, but it may be perfectly natural style in certain languages.

Judith went out, she and her maid with her: The phrase went out means “went out of [or, left] the city.” The following phrase, she and her maid with her, helps to put emphasis on Judith. Some languages may be able to keep this construction, but other languages will need to follow Good News Translation with “Judith and her slave left the city.”

The men of the city watched her …: The description of the women walking down the hill, into the valley, and out of sight of the men watching from the city walls is effective placed against verse 11, where we shift our point of view and see the two coming from the standpoint of the Assyrians. There is some difficulty with the picture since this is supposed to be taking place at night (8.33; 11.4), but there is not much the translator can do that will not either accent the problem or misrepresent the picture. Perhaps without too much strain, the Greek can be understood like this: “the men of the city kept their eyes on her until she had gone down the mountain and started across the valley and they could no longer see her.” This involves highlighting the beginning of the action passed through. This is permissible and it perhaps clarifies the picture.

Passed through the valley: Part of the difficulty here, and in the next verse as well, is the idea of the women going through the valley. In English, going through a valley implies that one is going the length of it. These women are going across the valley to the opposite side, as New American Bible and New English Bible correctly picture it. In 13.10 the two women reverse this path.

Quoted with permission from Bullard, Roger A. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on Judith. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2001. For this and other handbooks for translators see here.

Translation commentary on Judith 11:20 - 11:21

Her words pleased Holofernes and all his servants: Her words may also be expressed as “the words she spoke,” “what Judith had said” (Good News Translation), or “Judith’s plan.” All his servants are the men mentioned in 10.20.

And said in verse 20 becomes in Good News Translation “they commented one to another” at the close of verse 21. This keeps the narrator’s statement of their reaction and the words of their reaction from being interrupted with an editorial note. But some translators will find Revised Standard Version‘s translation more natural style. Contemporary English Version is also helpful: “They were so amazed at her wisdom that they said to each other….”

There is not such a woman from one end of the earth to the other, either for beauty of face or wisdom of speech: From one end of the earth to the other means “in all the world” or “all over the world.” For this sentence Good News Translation has “She must be the wisest and most beautiful woman in the world” (similarly Contemporary English Version). This translation expresses the proper tone of admiration. However, one may also translate in a way similar to Revised Standard Version‘s wisdom of speech; for example, “speaks such wise words.”

An alternative translation model for verses 21-22 is:

• Holofernes and his servants liked what Judith said. They were so amazed at her wisdom that they said to each other, “There is no woman in the world who is so beautiful and speaks such wise words [or, speaks so wisely].”

Quoted with permission from Bullard, Roger A. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on Judith. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2001. For this and other handbooks for translators see here.