Translation introduction to Judith (United Bible Societies)

Translating Judith

Judith tells the story of a brave Israelite woman determined to remain faithful to her religion while saving her hometown from an invasion.
Cast of characters in the book of Judith

The following list of characters is the order in which they occur in the book of Judith.

Nebuchadnezzar — King of Assyria.
Arphaxad — King of the Medes, defeated by Nebuchadnezzar.
Holofernes — Assyrian general who lays siege to the Israelite city of Bethulia. The villain of the story.
Joakim — Israelite high priest in Jerusalem.
Achior — Ammonite military leader who cautions Holofernes about the Israelites. Holofernes sends him off to Bethulia, where Holofernes’ soldiers tie him up and leave him. When Holfernes is killed, Achior becomes a believer in the God of Israel.
Uzziah — A leader of the Israelite city of Bethulia, and spokesman for the other leaders.
Chabris and Charmis — Two elders of Bethulia.
Judith — Heroine of the story, a beautiful Israelite widow.
Judith’s maid — An unnamed woman who accompanies Judith on her adventures.
Bagoas — Eunuch serving as personal attendant to Holofernes.

Some characteristics of the book of Judith

Judith is a well-crafted narrative telling how a faithful Israelite woman single-handedly defeats the Assyrian army threatening her hometown of Bethulia. Judith is not introduced until chapter 8. The first seven chapters are a slow buildup to her appearing on the scene, at which time the action speeds up and the narrative gains interest.

The book seems to reinvent history. Nebuchadnezzar appears here as King of Assyria, while the man known to history was King of Babylonia a century later. His opponent, Arphaxad of Media, is unknown. The book speaks of the Jewish people having returned from exile (4.3), yet the Assyrians, and Babylonians as well, were threats to the Israelite population before the exile. The geography of the book is just as odd. Holofernes’ army takes only three days to march 300 miles to southeastern Asia Minor, and then he fights in areas associated with North Africa. After this he attacks Mesopotamia, and the next thing we know he is in Palestine (2.21-28).

The historical and geographical errors in the book are so obvious that scholars today believe they are deliberate. They are a device of the author to direct the reader’s attention away from past history and to the story itself. The town of Bethulia, center of the action, is completely unknown. All of this suggests that the characters and events in the book are symbolic. Judith’s symbolism is obvious. The name Judith is simply the feminine form of the word “Jew,” and it is clear that she represents the faith and resources of the Jewish people. The military threat to Bethulia probably represents any kind of threat to Jerusalem and to Jewish integrity. People who faithfully follow the Law of God can oppose such a threat. Bethulia probably is derived from Bethel, which means “house of God,” so it is an imaginary representation of Jerusalem or Judea.

Judith is by far the most developed character in the story. She is beautiful, she is cunning, she is resourceful, she is brave. She is faithful to God, to Jewish tradition, and to the memory of her husband. She is also deceptive and willing to use her sexuality as a weapon against her enemy. She is as profound a thinker as the wise men of Israel (8.11-23). She can pray like a prophet (chapter 9), sing like a psalmist (chapter 16) and act with the bloody violence of one of the judges (13.4-9). Her fidelity and valor put to shame the men who rule in Bethulia.

Holofernes, with his boastfulness, exemplifies how those who dare oppose God’s purposes are reduced to fools. Claiming to act for his god Nebuchadnezzar, he reduces most of the world known at the time to ruins. Finally he prepares for a climactic assault on Bethulia to destroy all the Jewish people. But he meets a bloody end at the hands of a single Israelite woman.

Binding the two parts of the book (chapters 1–7 without Judith and chapters 8–16 with her) is the character of Achior, the Ammonite leader who functions much like Balaam does in the book of Numbers. A non-Israelite, he respects Israel and warns Holofernes against ill-advised action. Holofernes turns him over to the Israelites so he can meet his doom along with them, but after Judith’s conquest he appears again as a witness to Israel and Israel’s God, even joining the community of Israel as one of them.

The circumstances of the writing of Judith

The author is unknown. Various dates have been suggested for the writing of the book, but opinion today is heavily in favor of a date in the first century B.C. In 9.8 Judith’s words seem to reflect the experience of the Jews with Antiochus Epiphanes in the second century. Customs referred to in 8.6 and 11.13 seem to suggest an even later origin in the first century B.C., when the tradition of the Pharisees was widely known. The political organization of Israel in Judith, involving a high priest working alongside a senate, also seems to speak for a date as late as the first century B.C. Judith is referred to by the Christian writer Clement of Rome about A.D. 90. Since Clement knows the book in its Greek translation, we must allow time after writing for the book to become known, be translated, and be circulated in translation. The first century B.C. is consistent with these observations. There is general agreement that the book was originally written in Hebrew, though some would argue for Aramaic. Hebrew idioms are often easily discerned behind the Greek translation. Most scholars would venture that Judith was written in Palestine, although there is not a great deal of evidence to help solve this question.

The Greek text of Judith is in good shape, with relatively few difficult textual problems.

Outline of contents

Introduction: Nebuchadnezzar (1.1-16)
Part I: Holofernes (2.1–7.32)
Nebuchadnezzar’s orders to Holofernes (2.1-13)
Holofernes carries out Nebuchadnezzar’s orders (2.14–3.10)
Israel prepares for war (4.1-15)
Holofernes’ questions (5.1-4)
Achior’s answer (5.5-21)
The war council’s response (5.22-24)
Holofernes’ response to Achior (6.1-9)
The Assyrians expel Achior (6.10-13)
Achior in Bethulia (6.14-21)
Holofernes lays siege to Bethulia (7.1-18)
Conditions in Bethulia (7.19-32)
Part II: Judith (8.1–16.25)
Judith introduced (8.1-8)
Judith confronts the elders of Bethulia (8.9-36)
Judith’s prayer (9.1-14)
Judith carries out her plans (10.1-23)
Holofernes welcomes Judith (11.1-4)
Judith explains her plans to Holofernes (11.5-19)
Holofernes praises Judith (11.20-23)
Judith carries out her plans (12.1-9)
Judith kills Holofernes (12.10–13.10a)
Judith welcomed back to Bethulia (13.10b-20)
Judith’s plan (14.1-5)
Achior’s conversion (14.6-10)
Judith’s plan is carried out (14.11–15.7)
Judith is celebrated as a heroine (15.8-13)
Judith’s song of praise (16.1-17)
Judith’s later life (16.18-25)

Quoted with permission from Bullard, Roger A. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on Judith. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2001. For this and other handbooks for translators see here.

Translation commentary on Judith 2:8

Compare Ezek 35.8, where God pronounces destruction on Edom in this language. The translator needs to preserve the imagery, but should not forget that the main point here is that Nebuchadnezzar is making a vicious threat.

Till their wounded shall fill their valleys, and every brook and river shall be filled with their dead: Filled is a passive verb. In languages that do not have the passive voice, Good News Translation‘s translation will be helpful:

• I will fill the valleys with their dead bodies and will choke up every stream and river with so many corpses….

However, in languages that prefer the passive, Contemporary English Version‘s translation will serve as a good model:

• The valleys and gorges will be filled with wounded people, and the land will be flooded, because dead bodies will block every stream and river.

Quoted with permission from Bullard, Roger A. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on Judith. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2001. For this and other handbooks for translators see here.

Translation commentary on Judith 4:4

So they sent: The connector So indicates that as a result of their fear they send out a warning. They refers to “the people of Israel” from verse 1. For many languages an object is required for the verb sent. Good News Translation has “sent a warning” (similarly Contemporary English Version), and New Revised Standard Version has “sent word.” In some languages it will be necessary to indicate that the “warning” goes out to the “people” of the various areas mentioned, so Contemporary English Version has “the Israelites warned the people living in the territory of Samaria….”

Every district of Samaria …: The reference to Samaria is a problem because after the exile, the Samaritans and Judeans were hostile. But in this story, all Israel is still essentially one. Note that the region of Samaria is specifically mentioned; it is not just the city of that name. Of the cities named here, only Beth-horon (a few miles northwest of Jerusalem; Josh 21.22; 1 Macc 3.16-24) and Jericho are recognizable, but they are not in the vicinity of Samaria. Belmain is possibly the site referred to as “Balbaim” in 7.3 and “Balamon” in 8.3. The valley of Salem is unknown; it is not to be identified with the Salem of Gen 14.18. Once again, it is probably best not to take the confusing geography in realistic detail. The foe stands at the north, the traditional source of an external threat (Isa 14.31; Jer 1.14). But unlike the reaction of the Gentiles, the Judeans plan to offer resistance.

Quoted with permission from Bullard, Roger A. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on Judith. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2001. For this and other handbooks for translators see here.

Translation commentary on Judith 5:23

They said: The Greek has no introductory they said. The story simply moves into the first person plural, but the reader needs to be alerted somehow that this is direct speech. Most translations use a quotation frame to introduce the speech; for example, Good News Translation has “they asked.”

We will not be afraid of the Israelites: This expression follows the Greek text closely, but it lacks boastfulness. Better renderings are “Why should we be afraid of the Israelites?” or “We are not afraid of the Israelites!”

They are a people with no strength or power for making war: Good News Translation is probably correct in thinking of strength as one thing (“they are weak”) and power for making war another (“they can’t put up a strong defense”). Power for making war is literally “power for a strong battle formation.” In this situation, Holofernes and his men are thinking of the Israelites putting up a defensive line of battle (so Good News Translation), but in fact, it will be the Israelites who attack (15.1-7). Good News Translation may be missing a subtle point by limiting the translation to defense. New English Bible does better by saying they cannot put “an effective army in the field.” Alternative translation models for this whole clause are “They are weak; they can’t put up a strong fight” and “They are too weak to fight against us.”

Quoted with permission from Bullard, Roger A. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on Judith. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2001. For this and other handbooks for translators see here.

Translation commentary on Judith 7:14

They and their wives and children will waste away with famine: Any translation saying “anyone” in verse 13 would be well advised in this verse to follow the example of Good News Translation in introducing “men.” Otherwise, by saying their wives and children, one would be using “anyone” to refer specifically to men. New Revised Standard Version misses this point. Contemporary English Version puts “men” at the beginning of the verse with “Every man, woman, and child in the town….” Waste away with famine probably means, as Good News Translation has it, “starve to death.” This may be an overstatement, but if so, it is allowable. The enemy is not being careful and precise with words here. In verse 13 it is said that the people will surrender the city because of thirst. Here the people will be starving, and nothing is said about surrender.

Before the sword reaches them is literal. The sword refers to Holofernes’ soldiers, not the Edomites and those with them. So Contemporary English Version has “before your army attacks” (compare Good News Translation “before we attack”). The point is that Holofernes can wait them out and take the city without sustaining any losses of his own.

They will be strewn about in the streets where they live refers to their corpses lying in the streets. Streets where they live means “streets where they now live,” but where they live is essentially redundant, and Good News Translation leaves it out. An alternative translation model for the last half of this verse is: “Even before we attack, their dead bodies will litter the streets where they now live.”

Contemporary English Version helpfully rearranges the clauses of this verse as follows:

• Every man, woman, and child in the town will starve to death, and the streets will be filled with dead bodies, even before your army attacks.

Quoted with permission from Bullard, Roger A. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on Judith. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2001. For this and other handbooks for translators see here.

Translation commentary on Judith 8:14

You cannot plumb the depths of the human heart, nor find out what a man is thinking is literally “You will not [cannot] discover the depth of a person’s heart and you will not [cannot] grasp words of his/her mind.” It underscores the futility of what the leaders are trying to do; they will never understand anything, and here they are trying to understand what God is going to do. Although the two clauses both refer to the human mind, they may be translated as two separate actions. Good News Translation does this with “There is no way that you can understand what is in the depths of a human heart or find out what a person is thinking,” and Contemporary English Version has “You can never know what goes on in a person’s heart or learn what someone else is thinking.” If a translator finds it better to combine the two clauses, we may say “You may never be able to find out what a person is really thinking.”

How do you expect to search out God, who made all these things, and find out his mind or comprehend his thought?: This is a rhetorical question that functions as a strong statement. So in languages that do not use rhetorical questions, one may translate, for example, “You have no right to claim that you understand God….” Who made all these things becomes “God, the Creator” in Good News Translation. When Judith says all these things, she perhaps gestures with a broad sweep of her arm, so that all these things means “everything you can see.” The phrase has the effect of making the human attempt to read God’s mind more ridiculous. Good News Translation keeps all three verbs search, find out, and comprehend as “read,” “interpret,” and “claim to understand.” However, these are very similar in meaning, and in some languages will be combined for a more natural style; for example, “How do you expect to know what God the Creator is thinking or what he is planning to do?” Note that find out is the same verb and same form as “you will … know” in verse 13.

My brethren is literally “brothers.” Good News Translation uses “my friends.”

Do not provoke the Lord our God to anger: “Stop arousing the anger” (Good News Translation) conveys the sense of the Greek verb form. Rather than cautioning the leaders not to arouse God’s anger, she is telling them to quit what they are already doing. For Lord our God notice that Judith reverts to the inclusive first person pronoun. In verse 11 Judith had scornfully spoken of God helping “you.” Here she speaks of God helping “us.” The pronoun is being used to say, “We are all in this together.”

Quoted with permission from Bullard, Roger A. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on Judith. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2001. For this and other handbooks for translators see here.

Translation commentary on Judith 9:12

Hear, O hear me is no more literal than Good News Translation “Now hear my prayer”; the text says literally “Yes! Yes!” While Gonzáles and Alonso-Schöckel renders it “Sí, sí” (Spanish for “Yes, yes”) and Traduction œcuménique de la Bible “Oui, oui” (French for “Yes, yes”), the English translations prefer some other route. Several, including New Jerusalem Bible, New American Bible, and New Revised Standard Version, have “Please, please,” which works pretty well.

God of my father: Although the Greek word is simply father, the reference is surely to her “ancestor Simeon,” as Good News Translation insists on. Moore feels that the reference is probably to Judith’s own father, who is not a character in the story. But translators should follow Good News Translation. The phrase God of my father, is found word for word in Exo 15.2, so this is yet another reference to the song of Moses. Another way to express this is “You are the God my ancestor Simeon worshiped [or, served].”

God of the inheritance of Israel is “God of the heritage of Israel” in New Revised Standard Version and some other versions. Good News Translation takes this to mean “the God whom Israel has inherited, the God worshiped in Israel,” so it translates “the God in whom Israel trusts.” There is precedent for this in the Old Testament, but more often the inheritance of Israel refers to the land itself. It probably does here. Notice the progression in the divine titles in this verse. From the very specific God of my father they seem to move outward in a broadening circle: My father … the land of Israel … the heaven and earth … the oceans … all creation. In the context inheritance more likely refers to the land than to God since Judith is poised to save her people. She probably means by the phrase, “God of this land that you have given us.”

Creator of the waters: Good News Translation translates well with “creator of the rivers and the seas.”

King of all thy creation may be rendered “ruler over everything you have created.”

Hear my prayer at the end of the verse is a literal translation of the Greek, unlike the Hear, O hear me at the beginning of the verse. Good News Translation effectively joins this plea to the substance of the next verse: “Hear my prayer and let….”

Quoted with permission from Bullard, Roger A. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on Judith. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2001. For this and other handbooks for translators see here.

Translation commentary on Judith 11:8

For we have heard of your wisdom and skill: Judith really flatters Holofernes here. Her sweet talk is so extravagant that only the most arrogant and conceited person could not see through it, but Judith has understood her opponent well. We refers of course to the Israelites, or at least the people of Bethulia, and some translators may feel it helpful to say “We Israelites have heard…” or “My people have heard” (Contemporary English Version). The nouns wisdom and skill become adjectives in Good News Translation; they sound more flattering that way since the clause “how wise and clever you are” calls more attention to Holofernes’ person.

It is reported throughout the whole world that you are the one good man in the whole kingdom, thoroughly informed and marvelous in military strategy: This represents the Greek literally, but it is awkward in English. Good News Translation expresses this sentence better in English and represents the Greek well for the most part. Judith is not really saying that Holofernes is the only good man in the kingdom, but that he is the best in regard to the skills that follow. However, Good News Translation could improve its translation of the whole world. One hates to say that every translation misses the point, but every translation at hand has Judith telling Holofernes that the whole world knows all this about him. The Greek uses a word that can mean, and here probably does mean, “the whole land,” that is, all of Israel. She has just said we have heard … and that thought is probably continued here. She is speaking for Israel, not for the whole world. Good News Translation could be altered to catch this: “Everyone in Israel [or, this whole land] knows….” With this change Good News Translation‘s model is a helpful one and translators should study it.

Quoted with permission from Bullard, Roger A. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on Judith. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2001. For this and other handbooks for translators see here.