Translation introduction to Judith (United Bible Societies)

Translating Judith

Judith tells the story of a brave Israelite woman determined to remain faithful to her religion while saving her hometown from an invasion.
Cast of characters in the book of Judith

The following list of characters is the order in which they occur in the book of Judith.

Nebuchadnezzar — King of Assyria.
Arphaxad — King of the Medes, defeated by Nebuchadnezzar.
Holofernes — Assyrian general who lays siege to the Israelite city of Bethulia. The villain of the story.
Joakim — Israelite high priest in Jerusalem.
Achior — Ammonite military leader who cautions Holofernes about the Israelites. Holofernes sends him off to Bethulia, where Holofernes’ soldiers tie him up and leave him. When Holfernes is killed, Achior becomes a believer in the God of Israel.
Uzziah — A leader of the Israelite city of Bethulia, and spokesman for the other leaders.
Chabris and Charmis — Two elders of Bethulia.
Judith — Heroine of the story, a beautiful Israelite widow.
Judith’s maid — An unnamed woman who accompanies Judith on her adventures.
Bagoas — Eunuch serving as personal attendant to Holofernes.

Some characteristics of the book of Judith

Judith is a well-crafted narrative telling how a faithful Israelite woman single-handedly defeats the Assyrian army threatening her hometown of Bethulia. Judith is not introduced until chapter 8. The first seven chapters are a slow buildup to her appearing on the scene, at which time the action speeds up and the narrative gains interest.

The book seems to reinvent history. Nebuchadnezzar appears here as King of Assyria, while the man known to history was King of Babylonia a century later. His opponent, Arphaxad of Media, is unknown. The book speaks of the Jewish people having returned from exile (4.3), yet the Assyrians, and Babylonians as well, were threats to the Israelite population before the exile. The geography of the book is just as odd. Holofernes’ army takes only three days to march 300 miles to southeastern Asia Minor, and then he fights in areas associated with North Africa. After this he attacks Mesopotamia, and the next thing we know he is in Palestine (2.21-28).

The historical and geographical errors in the book are so obvious that scholars today believe they are deliberate. They are a device of the author to direct the reader’s attention away from past history and to the story itself. The town of Bethulia, center of the action, is completely unknown. All of this suggests that the characters and events in the book are symbolic. Judith’s symbolism is obvious. The name Judith is simply the feminine form of the word “Jew,” and it is clear that she represents the faith and resources of the Jewish people. The military threat to Bethulia probably represents any kind of threat to Jerusalem and to Jewish integrity. People who faithfully follow the Law of God can oppose such a threat. Bethulia probably is derived from Bethel, which means “house of God,” so it is an imaginary representation of Jerusalem or Judea.

Judith is by far the most developed character in the story. She is beautiful, she is cunning, she is resourceful, she is brave. She is faithful to God, to Jewish tradition, and to the memory of her husband. She is also deceptive and willing to use her sexuality as a weapon against her enemy. She is as profound a thinker as the wise men of Israel (8.11-23). She can pray like a prophet (chapter 9), sing like a psalmist (chapter 16) and act with the bloody violence of one of the judges (13.4-9). Her fidelity and valor put to shame the men who rule in Bethulia.

Holofernes, with his boastfulness, exemplifies how those who dare oppose God’s purposes are reduced to fools. Claiming to act for his god Nebuchadnezzar, he reduces most of the world known at the time to ruins. Finally he prepares for a climactic assault on Bethulia to destroy all the Jewish people. But he meets a bloody end at the hands of a single Israelite woman.

Binding the two parts of the book (chapters 1–7 without Judith and chapters 8–16 with her) is the character of Achior, the Ammonite leader who functions much like Balaam does in the book of Numbers. A non-Israelite, he respects Israel and warns Holofernes against ill-advised action. Holofernes turns him over to the Israelites so he can meet his doom along with them, but after Judith’s conquest he appears again as a witness to Israel and Israel’s God, even joining the community of Israel as one of them.

The circumstances of the writing of Judith

The author is unknown. Various dates have been suggested for the writing of the book, but opinion today is heavily in favor of a date in the first century B.C. In 9.8 Judith’s words seem to reflect the experience of the Jews with Antiochus Epiphanes in the second century. Customs referred to in 8.6 and 11.13 seem to suggest an even later origin in the first century B.C., when the tradition of the Pharisees was widely known. The political organization of Israel in Judith, involving a high priest working alongside a senate, also seems to speak for a date as late as the first century B.C. Judith is referred to by the Christian writer Clement of Rome about A.D. 90. Since Clement knows the book in its Greek translation, we must allow time after writing for the book to become known, be translated, and be circulated in translation. The first century B.C. is consistent with these observations. There is general agreement that the book was originally written in Hebrew, though some would argue for Aramaic. Hebrew idioms are often easily discerned behind the Greek translation. Most scholars would venture that Judith was written in Palestine, although there is not a great deal of evidence to help solve this question.

The Greek text of Judith is in good shape, with relatively few difficult textual problems.

Outline of contents

Introduction: Nebuchadnezzar (1.1-16)
Part I: Holofernes (2.1–7.32)
Nebuchadnezzar’s orders to Holofernes (2.1-13)
Holofernes carries out Nebuchadnezzar’s orders (2.14–3.10)
Israel prepares for war (4.1-15)
Holofernes’ questions (5.1-4)
Achior’s answer (5.5-21)
The war council’s response (5.22-24)
Holofernes’ response to Achior (6.1-9)
The Assyrians expel Achior (6.10-13)
Achior in Bethulia (6.14-21)
Holofernes lays siege to Bethulia (7.1-18)
Conditions in Bethulia (7.19-32)
Part II: Judith (8.1–16.25)
Judith introduced (8.1-8)
Judith confronts the elders of Bethulia (8.9-36)
Judith’s prayer (9.1-14)
Judith carries out her plans (10.1-23)
Holofernes welcomes Judith (11.1-4)
Judith explains her plans to Holofernes (11.5-19)
Holofernes praises Judith (11.20-23)
Judith carries out her plans (12.1-9)
Judith kills Holofernes (12.10–13.10a)
Judith welcomed back to Bethulia (13.10b-20)
Judith’s plan (14.1-5)
Achior’s conversion (14.6-10)
Judith’s plan is carried out (14.11–15.7)
Judith is celebrated as a heroine (15.8-13)
Judith’s song of praise (16.1-17)
Judith’s later life (16.18-25)

Quoted with permission from Bullard, Roger A. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on Judith. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2001. For this and other handbooks for translators see here.

Translation commentary on Judith 2:4

The Greek text of this verse begins literally with “And it came to pass that….” It is using a common Hebrew idiom that often signals a shift of scene or emphasis. Here the narrative is preparing to move into a new significant scene. An introductory “then” might help, but the least that can be done is to begin this sentence as a new paragraph, as in Good News Translation. The paragraph structure of Revised Standard Version here obscures the importance of what follows.

When he had finished setting forth his plan: This clause is literally, “When he completed his plan.” This means “When he finished telling his plan” or “When he had finished telling them what he planned to do.” Good News Translation loses little by its shift of focus: “At the close of the meeting….” New Jerusalem Bible has “When the council was over….”

Nebuchadnezzar king of the Assyrians called Holofernes: Good News Translation misses two important points in this clause. First, it omits as redundant information Nebuchadnezzar‘s title as king of the Assyrians. Of course the reader knows it, but it is an emphatic assertion of strength: the king of the Assyrians, victor over the mighty Arphaxad, now calls Holofernes. It is an effective introduction to Holofernes, who as a character is second in importance in this book only to Judith herself. He shares the strength of Nebuchadnezzar king of the Assyrians. The title is important from the point of view of the narrator. Translators should keep this phrase (so also Contemporary English Version). A second point missed by Good News Translation is the expression called Holofernes. The Greek assumes (though one could argue this) that Holofernes has not been present for the council discussed in verses 1-3. He is summoned here. The natural inference from Good News Translation is that Holofernes has been present all along, but this is not the impression left by the Greek. He is introduced at a dramatic point. To make this point clear one may say “Nebuchadnezzar, king of the Assyrians, called for Holofernes to come in.”

Chief general of his army, second only to himself: Second only to himself may also be expressed as “Only the king was higher in status than Holofernes” or “Only the king had more authority than Holofernes.”

An alternative translation model for this verse is:

• When he had finished telling them what he planned to do, King Nebuchadnezzar of Assyria called for Holofernes to come in. Holofernes was the chief general of his soldiers, and only the king had more authority than he did.

Quoted with permission from Bullard, Roger A. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on Judith. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2001. For this and other handbooks for translators see here.

Translation commentary on Judith 3:9 - 3:10

Then he came to the edge of Esdraelon: The connector Then shows that Holofernes has finished his destruction of the religious objects and now begins a new phase of his campaign. Translators should begin a new paragraph here, as Revised Standard Version and Good News Translation do. Esdraelon is another name for “Jezreel Valley” (Good News Translation, Contemporary English Version); see the notes on 1.8 and 6.11.

Near Dothan, fronting the great ridge of Judea: The town of Dothan is five miles south of Jezreel Valley. It is not clear what is meant by the great ridge of Judea. New American Bible translates “the main ridge of the Judean mountains.” This manages to be satisfactory while raising few questions.

Here he camped between Geba and Scythopolis: For a comment on the translation of camped, see 2.21. The precise location of Geba is unknown, but there are several possibilities in the area of Jezreel Valley. Scythopolis (also called Beth-Shan) is located at the southeastern end of the valley, where it meets the valley of the Jordan River. It would appear that Holofernes has made a swing to the north, to attack Judea from that direction. Whatever may be said of its value as military strategy, it is cunning literary strategy. Jezreel Valley (especially at Megiddo) was the site of many ancient battles, since it offered a convenient plain cutting across rugged highlands, where armies could meet. Here the stars from their courses fought against Sisera (Jdg 5.20). Here good King Josiah was killed (2 Kgs 23.29). Hosea used it to give his firstborn a name that pointed to doom (Hos 1.4-5). The mountain overlooking the valley, Har-Megiddo, became the Armageddon of thought concerning the end of the world (Rev 16.16). And the reader must remember that Holofernes is on a mission of divine wrath to destroy much of the world; see the note on 2.21.

And remained for a whole month in order to assemble all the supplies for his army: Before beginning the climactic assault on Israel and Israel’s God, Holofernes takes a month to resupply his army. The narrative slows down as Holofernes bides his time. Contemporary English Version provides a good model here by translating “and stayed there a month while he gathered the supplies his army needed.”

Quoted with permission from Bullard, Roger A. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on Judith. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2001. For this and other handbooks for translators see here.

Translation commentary on Judith 5:19

But now they have returned to their God, and have come back: Revised Standard Version‘s literal rendering makes it sound as if the people have only recently returned to God and come back, and that they did both simultaneously. Good News Translation avoids that with the connector “that” to begin the first clause: “now that they have returned to their god, they have come back home….” One could also say “But once they returned to their god, they came back home….” It should be noted that the Greek uses different verbs for returning to God and returning to the land. The first is a verb meaning literally “turn back,” and is used of repentance. So it is possible to say “Now they have started worshiping their god again, and have returned home….”

From the places to which they were scattered: This clause in Greek makes use of a related noun and verb. It reads literally “the dispersion where they were dispersed.” An alternative way to express this clause is “from the places where their enemies took them as captives” (also Tob 13.3).

Have occupied Jerusalem, where their sanctuary is, and have settled in the hill country: The verb settled is the word indicating lasting settlement as discussed at 5.9. “Resettled” (Good News Translation) is clearly implied in this context (see 5.15). The verb translated occupied differs from settled. “Taken possession of” (Good News Translation) is better than occupied; it implies permanent possession as well as moving in and taking over. Sanctuary means “temple, the place where they worshiped their god” (see 4.13).

It was uninhabited may be rendered “no other people had settled there.”

Quoted with permission from Bullard, Roger A. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on Judith. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2001. For this and other handbooks for translators see here.

Translation commentary on Judith 7:10

Do not rely on their spears but on the height of the mountains: The commanders are simply pointing out that the highlands provide the Israelites a great defensive advantage. The Israelites have the obvious military advantage of higher ground; even light weapons coming down on encumbered troops struggling uphill can inflict serious losses. Here the word spears (see the note at 1.15) appears to stand for any kind of weapon, much as “bread” may represent “food.” So Good News Translation translates “weapons.”

It is not easy to reach the top of their mountains: Revised Standard Version and Good News Translation have only one sentence for the verse, whereas Contemporary English Version makes this final clause into a separate sentence: “That’s because the mountains are very steep and difficult to climb.” Some translators may wish to follow this model. Another possible model is the following: “These Israelites do not have to rely on their military power. They are protected by those high mountains where they live. It won’t be easy for our soldiers to climb up there.”

Quoted with permission from Bullard, Roger A. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on Judith. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2001. For this and other handbooks for translators see here.

Translation commentary on Judith 8:10

She sent her maid, who was in charge of all she possessed: This woman, though never named, will appear several times in the rest of the book as Judith’s companion. An unusual Greek word is translated maid; the word is actually an adjective (used here as a noun) meaning “pretty, graceful, delicate.” Enslin interprets this to mean “favorite slavegirl.” That the woman is a “slave” (Good News Translation) is not said at this point, but 16.23 makes it clear that she was, and it is not wrong to bring that information forward to this point. From the narrative we may gather that the woman was a slave, a trusted companion, and a business manager for Judith. Good News Translation shifts focus in describing her as one who “managed her business affairs.” The Greek literally reads “in charge of all her possessions” (compare Gen 24.2; 39.4).

To summon Chabris and Charmis, the elders of her city: Good News Translation is right in adding Uzziah to this verse, and proper in saying in the footnote that some manuscripts omit him. Uzziah is clearly present since he is named in 8.28 and 8.35. On the identity of the three men as elders, see the note on 7.23. For elders of her city, see 6.16.

Quoted with permission from Bullard, Roger A. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on Judith. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2001. For this and other handbooks for translators see here.

Translation commentary on Judith 9:8

Break their strength by thy might, and bring down their power in thy anger: Good News Translation combines these two parallel sentences (Break/ bring down, strength/ power, might/ anger). Unless one is trying to reproduce the poetic structure that would have been evident in Hebrew, it is all right to do this. The “army” (Good News Translation) is not specifically mentioned in the Greek, but clearly implied. In thy anger may be also expressed “You are angry, so….”

They intend to defile thy sanctuary, and to pollute the tabernacle: Good News Translation and Contemporary English Version combine defile and pollute, as well as sanctuary and tabernacle. The verbs defile and pollute are used in 9.2 with reference to Dinah. Just as the Shechemites defiled Dinah, the Assyrians intend to defile or “disgrace” (Contemporary English Version) the temple. Both sanctuary and tabernacle are poetic references to the “Temple” (Good News Translation).

Where thy glorious name rests: Thy glorious name refers to God himself. The temple is where he has come to dwell, so Good News Translation and Contemporary English Version translate this clause “where you are worshiped.” Another possible rendering is “where people worship you.”

Cast down the horn of thy altar with the sword: “Hack off” (Good News Translation) or “chop off” (Contemporary English Version) much better describes the breaking off of a hard object with a sword than cast down does. The text does not actually say this is to be done with swords specifically, but with iron implements of some kind. Iron axes could have been used. New Jerusalem Bible simply omits the reference; it is well enough implied with its verb “hack down.” However, in languages that must show what implement was used, “axes” is the most likely. We may then translate, for example, “and use axes to chop off the horns [or, corners] of your altar.” For altar see Tob 1.7. The horn of thy altar refers to projections at the top four corners of the altar that appeared to be in the shape of animal horns (Exo 27.2). Grasping the horns of the altar provided sanctuary from someone seeking vengeance (1 Kgs 2.28). To cut the horns from the altar was thus to deprive the people of their security (see Amos 3.14). Good News Translation and Contemporary English Version render these horns as “corners,” which is possible if the use of horns is misunderstood.

Quoted with permission from Bullard, Roger A. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on Judith. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2001. For this and other handbooks for translators see here.

Translation commentary on Judith 11:3

Why you have fled from them and come over to us may be rendered “why you left them and came to our side” (Contemporary English Version).

The problem here is what to do with since you have come to safety, which makes little sense in Revised Standard Version. The Greek is clear enough; Holofernes is giving Judith assurance that she is safe. Good News Translation does better by simply omitting the conjunction since: “You will be safe here.” New American Bible is able to keep a conjunction: “In any case, you have come to safety.” New Revised Standard Version is almost the same: “In any event….”

Quoted with permission from Bullard, Roger A. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on Judith. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2001. For this and other handbooks for translators see here.