Translation introduction to Judith (United Bible Societies)

Translating Judith

Judith tells the story of a brave Israelite woman determined to remain faithful to her religion while saving her hometown from an invasion.
Cast of characters in the book of Judith

The following list of characters is the order in which they occur in the book of Judith.

Nebuchadnezzar — King of Assyria.
Arphaxad — King of the Medes, defeated by Nebuchadnezzar.
Holofernes — Assyrian general who lays siege to the Israelite city of Bethulia. The villain of the story.
Joakim — Israelite high priest in Jerusalem.
Achior — Ammonite military leader who cautions Holofernes about the Israelites. Holofernes sends him off to Bethulia, where Holofernes’ soldiers tie him up and leave him. When Holfernes is killed, Achior becomes a believer in the God of Israel.
Uzziah — A leader of the Israelite city of Bethulia, and spokesman for the other leaders.
Chabris and Charmis — Two elders of Bethulia.
Judith — Heroine of the story, a beautiful Israelite widow.
Judith’s maid — An unnamed woman who accompanies Judith on her adventures.
Bagoas — Eunuch serving as personal attendant to Holofernes.

Some characteristics of the book of Judith

Judith is a well-crafted narrative telling how a faithful Israelite woman single-handedly defeats the Assyrian army threatening her hometown of Bethulia. Judith is not introduced until chapter 8. The first seven chapters are a slow buildup to her appearing on the scene, at which time the action speeds up and the narrative gains interest.

The book seems to reinvent history. Nebuchadnezzar appears here as King of Assyria, while the man known to history was King of Babylonia a century later. His opponent, Arphaxad of Media, is unknown. The book speaks of the Jewish people having returned from exile (4.3), yet the Assyrians, and Babylonians as well, were threats to the Israelite population before the exile. The geography of the book is just as odd. Holofernes’ army takes only three days to march 300 miles to southeastern Asia Minor, and then he fights in areas associated with North Africa. After this he attacks Mesopotamia, and the next thing we know he is in Palestine (2.21-28).

The historical and geographical errors in the book are so obvious that scholars today believe they are deliberate. They are a device of the author to direct the reader’s attention away from past history and to the story itself. The town of Bethulia, center of the action, is completely unknown. All of this suggests that the characters and events in the book are symbolic. Judith’s symbolism is obvious. The name Judith is simply the feminine form of the word “Jew,” and it is clear that she represents the faith and resources of the Jewish people. The military threat to Bethulia probably represents any kind of threat to Jerusalem and to Jewish integrity. People who faithfully follow the Law of God can oppose such a threat. Bethulia probably is derived from Bethel, which means “house of God,” so it is an imaginary representation of Jerusalem or Judea.

Judith is by far the most developed character in the story. She is beautiful, she is cunning, she is resourceful, she is brave. She is faithful to God, to Jewish tradition, and to the memory of her husband. She is also deceptive and willing to use her sexuality as a weapon against her enemy. She is as profound a thinker as the wise men of Israel (8.11-23). She can pray like a prophet (chapter 9), sing like a psalmist (chapter 16) and act with the bloody violence of one of the judges (13.4-9). Her fidelity and valor put to shame the men who rule in Bethulia.

Holofernes, with his boastfulness, exemplifies how those who dare oppose God’s purposes are reduced to fools. Claiming to act for his god Nebuchadnezzar, he reduces most of the world known at the time to ruins. Finally he prepares for a climactic assault on Bethulia to destroy all the Jewish people. But he meets a bloody end at the hands of a single Israelite woman.

Binding the two parts of the book (chapters 1–7 without Judith and chapters 8–16 with her) is the character of Achior, the Ammonite leader who functions much like Balaam does in the book of Numbers. A non-Israelite, he respects Israel and warns Holofernes against ill-advised action. Holofernes turns him over to the Israelites so he can meet his doom along with them, but after Judith’s conquest he appears again as a witness to Israel and Israel’s God, even joining the community of Israel as one of them.

The circumstances of the writing of Judith

The author is unknown. Various dates have been suggested for the writing of the book, but opinion today is heavily in favor of a date in the first century B.C. In 9.8 Judith’s words seem to reflect the experience of the Jews with Antiochus Epiphanes in the second century. Customs referred to in 8.6 and 11.13 seem to suggest an even later origin in the first century B.C., when the tradition of the Pharisees was widely known. The political organization of Israel in Judith, involving a high priest working alongside a senate, also seems to speak for a date as late as the first century B.C. Judith is referred to by the Christian writer Clement of Rome about A.D. 90. Since Clement knows the book in its Greek translation, we must allow time after writing for the book to become known, be translated, and be circulated in translation. The first century B.C. is consistent with these observations. There is general agreement that the book was originally written in Hebrew, though some would argue for Aramaic. Hebrew idioms are often easily discerned behind the Greek translation. Most scholars would venture that Judith was written in Palestine, although there is not a great deal of evidence to help solve this question.

The Greek text of Judith is in good shape, with relatively few difficult textual problems.

Outline of contents

Introduction: Nebuchadnezzar (1.1-16)
Part I: Holofernes (2.1–7.32)
Nebuchadnezzar’s orders to Holofernes (2.1-13)
Holofernes carries out Nebuchadnezzar’s orders (2.14–3.10)
Israel prepares for war (4.1-15)
Holofernes’ questions (5.1-4)
Achior’s answer (5.5-21)
The war council’s response (5.22-24)
Holofernes’ response to Achior (6.1-9)
The Assyrians expel Achior (6.10-13)
Achior in Bethulia (6.14-21)
Holofernes lays siege to Bethulia (7.1-18)
Conditions in Bethulia (7.19-32)
Part II: Judith (8.1–16.25)
Judith introduced (8.1-8)
Judith confronts the elders of Bethulia (8.9-36)
Judith’s prayer (9.1-14)
Judith carries out her plans (10.1-23)
Holofernes welcomes Judith (11.1-4)
Judith explains her plans to Holofernes (11.5-19)
Holofernes praises Judith (11.20-23)
Judith carries out her plans (12.1-9)
Judith kills Holofernes (12.10–13.10a)
Judith welcomed back to Bethulia (13.10b-20)
Judith’s plan (14.1-5)
Achior’s conversion (14.6-10)
Judith’s plan is carried out (14.11–15.7)
Judith is celebrated as a heroine (15.8-13)
Judith’s song of praise (16.1-17)
Judith’s later life (16.18-25)

Quoted with permission from Bullard, Roger A. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on Judith. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2001. For this and other handbooks for translators see here.

Translation commentary on Judith 1:15

He captured Arphaxad in the mountains of Ragae and struck him down with hunting spears: Good News Translation and Contemporary English Version‘s account of Arphaxad’s death is pale and understated. The Greek paints a grisly, gory picture. The spear is a sharp pointed metal blade with a long shaft or pole. Hunting spears (notice the plural) is Revised Standard Version‘s translation of a single Greek word. Translators should not be misled by the word hunting. We are dealing simply with the spears or javelins used in warfare. Struck him down does not do justice to the violence of the original text. He didn’t knock him over with spears, as struck him down suggests; he ran him through, pierced his body, stabbed him. Few translations take notice that the Greek actually has Nebuchadnezzar run his enemy through with “his spears,” perhaps because it is not clear whose spears they are. Presumably they are Nebuchadnezzar’s spears or javelins.

He utterly destroyed him, to this day: The last clause of the verse should not be reduced to “After Arphaxad’s death” (Good News Translation). It is an emphatic statement that Nebuchadnezzar put a decisive end to this man’s life. An idiomatic expression would fit here. New Jerusalem Bible “destroyed him once and for all” conveys the tone.

An alternative translation model for this verse is:

• King Nebuchadnezzar captured Arphaxad in the mountains around Ragae. Then he took his own hunting spears and destroyed Arphaxad finally [or, once and for all] by stabbing him with them.

Quoted with permission from Bullard, Roger A. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on Judith. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2001. For this and other handbooks for translators see here.

Translation commentary on Judith 3:5

Revised Standard Version accurately represents the Greek structure of this verse as a separate sentence. This sentence summarizes what is said in verses 1-4. In the original Hebrew behind this text, this would have been an expected and acceptable statement. But it sounds repetitious in English, so Good News Translation and Contemporary English Version have turned it into a time clause introducing the substance of the new paragraph beginning in verse 6. Good News Translation has “After the peace delegation had brought this message…,” and Contemporary English Version has “After Holofernes had listened to their message….”

Quoted with permission from Bullard, Roger A. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on Judith. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2001. For this and other handbooks for translators see here.

Translation commentary on Judith 5:15

So they lived in the land of the Amorites: For lived compare the note on “settled” in 5.9. The verb used here is different from the two used in verses 7-9. Those two are verbs compounded from a verb root and two prepositions; the verb used here is the simple root. From this Moore suggests that both the previous verbs indicate temporary settlement, and that this verb indicates permanence. Enslin makes a good case that this occurrence is a textual corruption of the verb used earlier in verse 9 for permanent settlement. At any rate, at this point in the history the occupation becomes permanent. Good News Translation‘s “occupied” is an appropriate description of what happened. Others use the term “settle” (Contemporary English Version, Revised English Bible). There is some emphasis here on beginning to live in the country of the Amorites, but this is completely missing from Revised Standard Version. New Revised Standard Version conveys it with “took up residence.” Amorites is an older term for “Canaanites”; they are two different terms for designating the original population. “Canaanites” never completely replaced Amorites, and in the Old Testament the two are often used in the same place. Compare Gen 15.16, 21. In a number of languages the Amorites will be termed “the people called Amorites.”

By their might destroyed all the inhabitants of Heshbon: By their might recalls one of Holofernes’ questions in 5.3, and may anticipate 13.8. This clause may also be expressed “They used their power to destroy [or, wipe out] the people of the region of Heshbon.” Heshbon was a city in Moab. It was east of the Jordan River opposite Jericho. Here the author probably intends a large section of the plateau on the east side of the Jordan, so Contemporary English Version has “the region of Heshbon.”

They took possession of all the hill country: Took possession is literally “inherited,” that is, took possession of that which the Lord had promised them. So we may translate “They took possession [or, control] of the hill country that God had promised to give to them” (compare the note on 4.12).

Quoted with permission from Bullard, Roger A. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on Judith. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2001. For this and other handbooks for translators see here.

Translation commentary on Judith 7:5

Then each man took up his weapons: Good News Translation‘s “But in spite of their fear” (Contemporary English Version “Although the Israelites were afraid”) corresponds to nothing more in the Greek text than an inconspicuous “and,” but it well describes the motivation of the defenders, and is a justifiable translation. New American Bible and New Revised Standard Version begin “Yet,” which is surely better than Revised Standard Version‘s Then. Revised Standard Version gives the impression of a sequence of events in which the Israelites first speak certain lines, then go and arm themselves. The words put in their mouths in verse 4 are only the author’s device for informing the readers of the Israelites’ emotional state, not a description of an action prior in time to the arming.

When they had kindled fires on their towers: Good News Translation has “lighted signal fires on the towers.” The purpose of the fires is not immediately clear. Good News Translation and Contemporary English Version interpret them as signals, as does the note in New American Bible. Yet the mention of the fires is surrounded by reference to men arming themselves and standing guard all night. This allows the inference that the fires are to light up the area around the city to guard against a surprise attack. They are watch fires rather than signal fires. We recommend this interpretation. For a comment on the translation of towers, see 1.3.

An alternative translation model for this verse is:

• Although they were afraid, the Israelite men took up their weapons and lit fires on the towers on the town walls to provide light as they guarded the town at night.

Quoted with permission from Bullard, Roger A. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on Judith. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2001. For this and other handbooks for translators see here.

Translation commentary on Judith 8:6

She fasted all the days of her widowhood: She fasted means that she went without food for a specified period of time (see 4.13). “During that entire period” (Good News Translation) avoids the repetition in all the days of her widowhood. “Except when fasting was forbidden” (Good News Translation) is a helpful addition to explain what the ancient Jewish reader would already know: the special observances named in the rest of the verse were days when Jewish practice forbade fasting.

The sabbath was the Israelite “day of rest,” and this will be a good way to translate it in many languages.

The day of the new moon marked the first day of the month in the Jewish calendar. Observance of this day was much like Sabbath observance (Num 28.9-15). Sabbath restrictions on work applied (Amos 8.5), and like the Sabbath, it was a day of rejoicing (Hos 2.11). Both Good News Translation and Contemporary English Version refer to it as the “New Moon Festival.”

The feasts and days of rejoicing of the house of Israel: The feasts and days of rejoicing (Good News Translation “festivals and holidays”; Contemporary English Version “every joyous festival”) would include the Passover, the Feast of Unleavened Bread, the Feast of Weeks, and the Festival of Booths/Shelters. House of Israel is an idiom referring to the Israelite nation (see 4.15). Of the house of Israel may be rendered “which the people of Israel observed [or, celebrated].”

Quoted with permission from Bullard, Roger A. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on Judith. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2001. For this and other handbooks for translators see here.

Translation commentary on Judith 9:4

Thou gavest their wives for a prey: For thou gavest see the note on verse 3. Their wives for a prey can be interpreted “their wives be carried off,” as in Good News Translation, or “their wives for rape,” as Moore puts it. The text is open to several interpretations; translators may be as specific as they think appropriate to the situation. Contemporary English Version has “Their wives were raped,” but we may also say “the Israelites raped their wives and made them slaves.”

Their daughters to captivity: Good News Translation has “their daughters taken captive,” or we may say “They [the Israelites] took their [the Shechemites’] daughters away as captives.”

All their booty to be divided among thy beloved sons: All their booty means “all their possessions” or “all their valuables.” “The Israelites, your chosen people” in Good News Translation is helpful in identifying the Israelites, but the modifying adjective is really beloved (or, “whom you love”) and not “chosen.” The Israelites here consist of the sons of Jacob—Dinah’s brothers. It will be necessary in some languages to put this clause into the active voice as follows: “Your beloved Israelites carried away all their possessions.”

Zealous for thee: “Eager to do your will” translates this in Good News Translation, but the meaning is also taken up in Good News Translation‘s “furious.” Contemporary English Version makes it clear what God’s will involved: “eager to take revenge on.”

Abhorred the pollution of their blood refers to the disgrace done the family by Dinah’s rape. Good News Translation makes this clear with “Dinah’s brothers were furious because of this disgrace to their family.” Dinah’s brothers were passionate for God (zealous for thee), resented the family disgrace, and called on God for help. It is possible to combine zealous for thee with abhorred the pollution of their blood as follows: “Dinah’s brothers were in a holy fury and were eager to take revenge on the Shechemites who had caused their [or, Dinah’s] family to be dishonored [or, to lose so much face].”

Oh God, my God, hear me also, a widow: The closing sentence of this verse takes on a different tone, depending on whether it is read as the close of a paragraph (Revised Standard Version) or as the opening of the next paragraph (Good News Translation, Contemporary English Version). As the close of the first paragraph, it presents a sudden interruption of Judith’s recitation with a plea for God’s help for herself. It is all the more effective for its abruptness. There is contrast between Dinah, who had brothers to help her, and Judith—a widow—who has no one. As the opening of the next paragraph, it sounds like an entreaty for God to pay attention to what she is about to say. Good News Translation weakens the force of the entreaty by using the word “God” only once. Actually this sentence would be quite effective as a paragraph standing alone, were it not for the fact that the next sentence begins with the causal conjunction “For.” That argues for beginning a new paragraph with this entreaty. The confession Judith makes in verse 5 is the basis on which she calls on God here. Even if “For” is omitted, as in Good News Translation, Contemporary English Version, and New American Bible, the connection with what follows is made by the placement of the paragraph break.

An alternative translation model for this verse is:

• You let your beloved Israelites rape the wives of the Shechemites and take away their daughters as slaves. Dinah’s brothers were furious and were eager to take revenge on the Shechemites because their family had been disgraced [or, lost so much face], and so they called on you to help them. That’s why you let them carry off all the possessions of those people.
O God, the God whom I worship, I am a widow. Please listen to my prayer.

Quoted with permission from Bullard, Roger A. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on Judith. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2001. For this and other handbooks for translators see here.

Translation commentary on Judith 10:22

When they told him of her: The pronoun they refers to Holofernes’ servants, so one may translate “When Holofernes’ servants told him that Judith had arrived.”

He came forward to the front of the tent is literally “he came out into the fore-tent.” He had been under the mosquito netting, but now comes out. The tent probably was sectioned off into several “rooms,” and here Holofernes comes into what would be the entrance hall. See the references to this arrangement in 13.1-3 and 14.14-15, and compare the description of such a tent in Isa 54.2.

With silver lamps carried before him: The lamps are needed for light since all this takes place at night (8.33), but the silver lamps accent the luxury of the general’s surroundings. Lamps were ordinarily made of clay, and could be held in one hand. Olive oil was burned as the fuel (see Tob 8.13). Both Revised Standard Version and Good News Translation use the passive verb carried. The Greek actually says “silver lamps going before him.” If one wishes to avoid the passive, but not have lamps as the subject of a verb of motion, one could say “Silver lamps lit the way.” Or one could use a passive verb with the lamps as agents: “with his way lit by silver lamps.” However, in languages that do not have the passive voice, Contemporary English Version‘s model will be useful: “with servants carrying silver lamps in front of him.”

Quoted with permission from Bullard, Roger A. and Hatton, Howard A. A Handbook on Judith. (UBS Helps for Translators). New York: UBS, 2001. For this and other handbooks for translators see here.